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THE ANNALS
AND
MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,
INCLUDING ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.
(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND CHARLESWORTH 'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )
CONDUCTED BY
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Ese., M.A., F.B.S., F.LS., F.G.8., JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z8. &e., WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.LS.,
AND
WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.
VOL. X.—FOURTH SERIES———~
‘S
LAPIN OS
2 ANOS onal muse LONDON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.
SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.; KENT AND CO.; WHITTAKER AND CO.: BAILLIERE, PARIS : MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :
HODGES, FOSTER, AND CO., DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.
1872.
“‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientiz et potentia testes, divitix felicitatis human :—ex harum usu donitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapzentia Domini ; ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet. Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper sstimata ; a yeré eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—Linnxvs.
“Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuyre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rappor- tent toutes ses opérations.”—Brucnner, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden,
1767.
SES hs goer ear cole Berd The sylvan powers Obey our summons; from their deepest dells The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild And odorous branches at our feet; the Nymphs That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed, But scatter round ten thousand forms minute Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock Or rifted oak or’cayern deep: the Naiads too Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles, Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread, The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne, All, all to us unlock their secret stores And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.
CONTENTS OF VOL. X.
[FOURTH SERIES. ]
NUMBER LV.
I. Contributions to the Study of the Entomostraca. By GrorcEr STEWARDSON Brapy, C.M.Z.S. &e.—No. VI. A List of the Non- parasitic Marine Copepoda of the North-east Coast of England. (Plates IT.-VI.)
Il. Further Observations on the Myology of Sarcophilus wrsinus. By ALEXANDER Maca ister, M.B., Professor of Zoology, Univer- sity of Dublin, and Director of the University Museum ..........
III. The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. By Harry G. SEELEY, St. John’s College, Cambridge
IV. Proposed name for the Sponge-animal, viz. ‘“ Spongozoon ;” also on the Origin of Thread-cells in the Spongiade. By H. J. (CAPRIS Psy aunts ees Marana keener ee tage MO Qt alae Gh nage ee ea Oks
V. On my so-called Globiocephalus Grayi. By Dr. HERMANN BURMEISTER
ia ta elybiva/iee we) «re! .y. wisiied.e lelrel.eiiace tombe
VI. On Emys nigra from Upper California. By Dr. J. E. Gray, [DAR eh SOB er hore neal hbo be o aitteidn pein Sram cr aoe Se VII. Experimental Researches upon the Position of the Centre of Gravity in Insects. By FELIx PLaTEau
VIII. Observations on Mr. Carter’s Paper ‘‘ On two new Sponges from the Antarctic Sea, and on a new Species of Tethya from Shet- land ; together with Observations on the Reproduction of Sponges commencing from Zygosis of the Sponge-animal.” By J.S. BowER- Bank, DED: BRIS. BOL vides 2 aos A a eo eit s vies Ak ee ae
IX. On a new Species of 7imalia from Eastern India. By Ar- THU ER Viscony WALDEN, ED Z,S.5 RSs) Scent cae eutoleh sia steele = X. Notes on the Anatomy of the Derriah ( Cynocephalus hama- dryas). By ALEXANDER MacatisTER, M.B., Professor of Zoology, University of Dublin
aia) oe! Oia 6,'0) vee) of eee) isu) e. * 6 © e) see vie) .e. 5 e) Selvin ef elelielle
On some Dermal Tubercles associated with Fossil Fish-remains, by James Thomson; On the two (?) unknown Species of Argus Pheasant, by T. W. Wood ; Note on a Deformed Example of Cariama cristata, by Dr. A. Giinther; On the Natural Affinities of the Balistide, by M. C. Dareste; On the Synonymy of the Genera of Euryalide, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On a new Species of Paradoxornis, by the Abbé A. David; Investigations on Fossils Birds, by M. A. Milne-Edwards; Migrations of the
Page
17,
2]
58
61
lv CONTENTS.
Page Graptolites, by H. Alleyne Nicholson, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.GS., &e.; Notice of a new Netted Sponge (Meyerella) from the Phi- lippines, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Additional Note on Osteocella septentrionalis, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. .... 66—76 NUMBER LVI. XI. Antipathes arctica, a new Species of Black Coral (Antipathide)
momenne olan seas. :| by Wr. 0), LuOiREN |. 6.25.10 oh) ss aeln soe nie (4 XII. Additions to the Australian Curculionidae. Part UI. By
BEAN GTN eAscom, Classe. (Plate T,)) ois siciee sic ciaceiwrals oad 84 XIII. Description, with Illustrations, of a new Species of Aplysina
from the N.W. Coast of Spain. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &c.
PELVIS Nios Sy cvay cra co ops ssndavirar saalaliaas ne See task Bite tiara crue Mae ets ie ME XIV. Descriptions of two new Sponges from the Philippine Islands.
PES Lage WPAN TIGER Bude, (05. val aats bo fess isis Susann evo d rates epene ioe Stolen 110 XV. On two new Species of Birds. By Joun Gouxp, F.R.S. &e. 114 XVI. List of Echinoderms collected by Robert M‘Andrew, Esq.,
F.R.S., in the Gulf of Suez in the Red Sea. By Dr. J. E. Gray,
LIGITGSS Gh eM cl ogee IAC Ra ae ee AREER S ok oR a Maser tats ri 115 XVII. Description of a new Genus and Species of Heterocerous
Lepidoptera. By ArrHur Garpiner Burts, F.L.S., F.Z.S., &e.
PTT Seay PISULE eat cavats eaeto-e baal assyeSepacs a Guede ays abate tee arate oe beers 125 XVIII. On a new Genus and Species of Hydroid Zoophytes. By
RY oD) Om ote MENS.) vk, Ah ace SERA TS Je eB cai Wamu cee eta 126
XIX. The Muscular Anatomy of the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). By ALEXANDER MacatisTER, M.B., Professor of Zoology, University SUNT ave: 3a un oleic sas ac oyeegs a oa yal ionedad ar before la me ome Ree Niece
XX. On a new Genus of Hexaradiate and other Sponges dis- covered in the Philippine Islands by Dr. A. B. Meyer. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.
XXI. On Codiophyllum, a new Genus of Unicellular Green Algze from Port Natal. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &. (Plate IX.)....
XXII. Answer to Dr. Bowerbank’s “ Observations on Mr. Carter’s paper &c.” in the last Number of the ‘Annals.’ By H. J. Carter, F.R.S. &c.
Proceedings of the Royal Society
© (20) 0) ae) @),0\ @) 0) 0) ale) 0.0) oop 8) 0) 4a) 8 esis e)-e mae lejjalie. mis. #ie) we eieal ehe.e
else) ote ena .e) ee) oie 6) 160), 0 '@l.e aa; ie aie 4 ke: 10 te) elie, @, 6:10 18 ue eaiieted ale) aifeael ihe! te (a
Ce CeO) Ta ONCmCAC i mat On ter a ee eh O
On the name Tethya and its Varieties of Spelling, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. ; Note on the Systematic Name of the Walrus, by Dr. W. Peters; The Clustered Sea-Polype (Umbellula grenlandica), by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; On Ziphius Sowerbiensis, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Marine Sponges in the British Mu- seum, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. ; Habits of Terebratula trun- cata, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On the Reproduction and
127
Mode of Life of the Phyllopoda, by Dr. Friedrich Brauer, . 150—152
CONTENTS. Vv
NUMBER LVII.
XXIII. Note on some Fossil Monkeys found in Italy, preceded by a Review of the Fossil Quadrumana in general. By C.J. ForsytH MNNETCD Ey ICN ts hat are ays nits pera tabek o Picea a ta"atal stake tatetaotavereeteretererdave athe a ates 158 XXIV. On Flustra mar: vee of Krauss and an allied Species, forming anew Genus (Flustramorpha) of Escharide, from Natal. By DDE REIL EAs EIT GGG 51 59s cts sha Piarc enal el dateraxnio aiwle’ sla lehe pte atis 167 XXV. A Cuvierian Principle in Paleeontology, tested by evidences of an extinct Leonine Marsupial (Thylacoleo carnifex), by Professor OWEN, F.R.S., D.C.L., Foreign Associate of the Institute of France. Reviewed by Grerarp Krerrt, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., M.F.D.H., &e.
OE aa ecee NSM rN ae? =! al aes nya, ars ithe ap ae er eae, cals ah een 169 XXVI. Description of two new Fishes from Tasmania. By Dr. A.
Ga Uoc e801 eee Sea Ake en AR ND oir hae oe orth iere Bets ir ic 183 XXVII. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K.
Parker, 1. R:S;, andProf, T; Rorurr Jonus, F:G:S....005 7225... 184 XXVIII. A Monograph of the Genus Thelyphonus. By ARTHUR
G-Burinn, BOL.S., Z:95; &e. - ((elete si). 0. ee cele ee 200 XXIX. Notes on a new Propithecus and the Fossane from Mada-
gascar.. by Dr. J. Ee Grae PRS, Seppe. 5 coe es canes so th oor: 206 XXX. On the double-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros (Ceratorhinus).
Meyeikne ey tle GAY, ERAS a Ocenia. 2 ie! «aye Rinses soa gee rate eee 207
XXXI. Note on Tethya muricata, Bowerbank, and Dorvillia agari- ciformis, Kent. By W.Savitue Kent, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Geological Department, British Marseums 7. jaaaeaieteledé «ald. .chetet. attends 209
XXXII. Description of Hesperornis regalis, with notices of four Other new Species of Cretaceous Birds. By Prof. O. C. Marsn.... 212
XXXIII. On the Genera Manourta and Scapia. By Dr. J.E.
CGA NEUSE WAS ROU car srek | svete a iaNe: hase Dy STA SHS fst c ees thee PO Dealer ohare tens 218 XXXIV. On Trionyx gangeticus, Cuvier, Trionyx hurum, B. H.
and Dr. Gray... by Dr. AnprEson, Calcutta.......5 5 <2.inqcs as. 219
Proceedings of the Royal: Society). 205. cass cae ao eee 222—224
On the Specific Name of the Black Redstart, by Alfred Newton, M.A., F.R.S.; New Names for a long-known Lepidopteron, by C. Ritsema; Note on Intelligence in Monkeys, by Prof. Cope ; Curious Habit ofa Snake, by Prof. Cope; Eggs and newly hatched young of Ixodes Dugesti and Argas reflexus, by George Gulliver, F.R.S.; Onthe Embryonic Form of the Gordii, by M. A. Villot
227—231 NUMBER LVIUI.
XXXV. On Callograptus radicans,a new Dendroid Graptolite. By Joun Horxrson, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. (Plate X.).............. 233 XXXVI. The Mollusca of Europe compared with those of Eastern North America. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S................. 2387
al CONTENTS.
Page XXXVII. Remarks on the Genera Trimerella, Dinobolus, and Monomerella. By Tuomas Davipson, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., and WIL- L1AM Kina, Se.D., Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s Gilere MOnIWAYy. ince sade scWes Soup ets ae pe ae ee ee ealeee elute 248 XXXVIII. On two new Species of Birds from the Philippine Islands. By ArTHUR Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S., F.R.S. ........ 252 XXXIX. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K. ParkKER, F.R.S., and Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.8. .... 253 XL. On the Habits of some Madeiran Spiders. By FREDERICK FE CATTLE Rept LISI A TLIS chk favseeka ee HAM bee dm Rah wialaton fo wtie E> baie ou eral 271 XLI. Remarks on Crinodes Sommeriand Tarsolepis remicauda. By MOON MERPREST STOR BUS T2005, E Liss y COCs v sere dare oi tere We ere Rad Dee kee aION G 274 XLII. Preliminary Report on Dredgings in Lake Ontario. By H. ALLEYNE NicHo.son, M.D., D.Sc., M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural History in University College, Toronto.................. 276 XLIII. On the Structure of the Echinoidea. By Prof. 8. Lovén. Hkee ARADO MUINVECD) Mk tess srskestaks) VAR at We Raia es ene ts PAR ALANS CIE g. Blarote acai hake Coce 285 XLIV. Notes on Propithecus bicolor and Rhinoceros lasiotis. By Esme MOA PhD), F Rise. Mies. rteais a Soe are bn 298
New Book :—Tortoises, Terrapins, and Turtles drawn from Life, by James de Carle Sowerby, F.L.S., and Edward Lear .......... 299
Proceedings of the Royal Society
On Thread-cells and Semen in Marine Sponges, by T. Eimer; Inyes- tigations upon the Development of the Gregarine, by E. van Beneden ; Diatoms in Hot Springs, by Dr. Blake ; On the Habits of Galeodes pallipes, by Prof. Cope..........-20.e0000- 306—312
NUMBER LIX.
XLV. On the Hydroid Lar sabellarum, Gosse, and its Reproduc- tion. By the Rev. THomas Hinoxs, B.A.,F.R.S. (Plate XIX.).. 313 XLVI. Notes on Coleoptera, with Descriptions of new Genera and Species.—Part II. By Francis P. Pasconr, F.LS. &e. (Plate XV.) 317 XLVII. Notes on the Mud-Tortoises of India (Trionyx, Geoffroy). Poynter Ana ER SeiReG, «it, snuttaieacon state Sue AE ee 326 XLVIII. Notes on a Deep-sea Dredging-Expedition round the Island of Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. By J. F. Wurr- RUMMORL KS VOUC 42 SLY. oN an Cladeethicls Oh eine bee end RE ERE 541 XLIX. Descriptions of new Myriopoda of the Family Glomeride. By ArtTHuR GARDINER Butter, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &c. (Plate XVIII.) 354 L. On Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths. By Oscar Scumipr. (Plates Pree LL) Welrrre gest bihs Mii sgt Ae ag Ae etc bcore, nee ... 359 LI. Notice of a new Species of Lizard (Eumeces albofasciolatus) from North Australia. By Dr. A. Ginruer, F.RS. ............ 370
CONTENTS. Vil
Page LIT. Dredging-Excursion to Iceland in June and July 1872. By
UAV BO VOR RIKGEULTATINE SS aiche sc fet, ERT Ales ails soleil Paee CRIA oh ae eab A AO eras chardis ofl sz
LUI. On the Structure of the Echinoidea. By Prof. 8. Lovin.. 376 LIV. Contributions to the History of the Hydroida. By the Rev. Tuomas Hincks, B.A., F.R.S. (Plate XX. figs. 1-4, & Plate XXI.) 385 LY. On Campylonema, a new Genus of Polyzoa. By the Rev. THomas Hincxs, B:A., F.R.S. (Plate XX. fig. 5.). 2... scenes 396 LVI. Notice of some Species of Fishes from the Philippine Islands. Ayes he ss UNE EER Sh 6 agg sc oes ond vacsensrahet oe ais hokey oles eke pea ae 397 LVII. On the Species of Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros. By fpwarp Biver. kon, Mom. Ag: Soe. .osii cece sae wawsarseiete 399 Varieties of the Tiara (Galera barbata), by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; On Branchipus and Artemia, by C. Voat; On Osteocella septentrionalis from British Columbia, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; Sowerby and Lear’s ‘ Tortoises’; The Ahu (Capreolus py- gargus), by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; A new British Calli- thamnion, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On Macroxus tephro- nacter, aby Uris J... Fu Greys Wl. SECs. 5 5s. tn ard sistent ne 405—408
NUMBER LX.
LVIII. On a new Family and Genus and two new Species of Thelyphondea. By the Rey. O. P. Campriner, M.A., C.M.Z.S.
CG RLEN Fey. ©. @ dp eaeaergee eer emia) OF ie Ange AC Meine Ceci ere ran tae ca A 409 LIX. On Bulenoptera patachonica and B, intermedia, By Dr. H.
SUPREMO THURS hy woe a ca Ccpateas cashed «esta! 9,6, tS) seks avs. sa.oicen ef Se 418 LX. On some new Species of Reptiles and Fishes collected by J.
Brenchley, Esq. By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER, F.R.S. ............ 418
LXI. On Psammoperca and Cnidon. By Dr. A. GiNTHER .... 426 LXII. On the Structure of the Echinoidea. By Prof.S.Lovin,. 427 LXIII. On the Guémul (Huamela leucotis). By Dr. J. E. Gray,
TR etl Celeste eedar Zo atcn.«scferoe apace: ohtsas D gsbeidte kta Wet af Oats Gude wes 445 LXIV. On Crinodes Sommeri and Tarsolepis remicauda, in answer
to Mr. Butler's Remarks. By C. RrmsmMa ........ 06+. cncses 446 _ LXV. On the Habits and Distribution of Lycosa ingens (Bl.). By
the ev. O: Ps Cancsamen, MAS CIMA: crs encase gene ee cones 448 LXVI. Notice of a large Siluroid from the Upper Amazons. By
Hy ACY: Be Te nea Ys CaN EDNG ER kee nal eee ha satel oe, RUA ZoLS ol 0° ale ocelat anak: 449
LXVII. Description of some new Species of Birds in the National Collection. By R. Bowpiter SuHarpe, F.LS., F.Z.8., &c., Senior
Assistant, Zoological Department, British Museum .............. 450 LXVIII. Descriptions of three new Species of Humming-birds. Pay eh OHRID PEL Bema co dn glial 5 sinter <a s caphointe Minn eratadeta 452
LXIX. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, By W. K. PaRKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., and Prof. T. Rupert Jonss, F.R.S., F.G.S. 458
Vill CONTENTS.
Page New Books :—Notes on the Birds of Damara Land, by C. J. Andersson ; A Handbook to the Birds of Egypt, by G. E. Shelley, F.G:S., F.ZS., &e.; A Handbook of British Birds, by J. E. Harting,
Ps UR pe cas & ak Pin ehe ccpe wie) absent maces Oe papahwn gam etecw 457—461 The Bell Collection of Reptiles; On Spatulemys Lasale, a new Genus of Hydraspide from Rio Parana, Corrientes, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c. ; Observations on the Metamorphoses of the Bony Fishes in general, and especially on those of a small Chinese Fish, of the Genus Macropoda, recently introduced into France, by M. N. Joly; On the Habits of Terebratule, or Lamp-shells, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On the Connexion which exists between the Nervous System and the Muscular System in the Helices, by M. Sicard ; On Delphinus Desmarestii, Risso (Aliama Desmarestii, Gray), by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.; The Swedish Scientific Expedition ; Report on a Memoir by Dr. Dufossé, “On the Noises and Expressive Sounds which the Freshwater and Marine Fishes of Europe produce,” by M. C. Robin; On a new Species of Balenoptera, by Capt. C. M. Scammon, U.S.R.M ; On the Varieties of Lndris and Propithecus, by Dr. J. E. Gray,
F.R.S. &e.; on Peloric Structures, by Dr. Peyritsch .... 466—474
lbaahsc~ Senay ae PRA i ee SAA = COORDS Dat ke Soot een ee Ne eae 475
PLATES IN VOL. X. PLATE I. Australian Curculionidae.
a Marine Copepoda.
VL)
VIL. Aplysina corneostellata.
VII. Tarsolepis remicauda. IX. Codiophyllum natalense. X. Callograptus radicans,
ey Thylacoleo carnifex.
XIII. New species of Thelyphonus. XIV. Structure of the Echinoidea.
XV. New Genera and Species of Coleoptera.
eat Coceoliths and Rhabdoliths.
XVIII. New Myriopoda. XIX. Lar sabellarum and its reproduction.
XX. Sarcothecee of the Plumulariide.—Reproduction in Campa- nularia neglecta.—New Genus of Polyzoa. XXI. Plumularia cornu-copize.—Planoblast of Cladonema radiatum. XXII. New Genus and Species of Thelyphonidea,
THE ANNALS
AND
MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
[FOURTH SERIES. }
Ce tptecanscuceece per litora spargite muscum, Naiades, et circiim vitreos considite fontes: Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores: Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum. At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas; Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas Ferte, Dew pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”
NV. Parthenii Giannettasii Kel. 1.
No. 55. JULY 1872.
I.— Contributions to the Study of the Entomostraca. By GEORGE STEWARDSON Brapy, C.M.Z.S. &e.
No. VII. A List of the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda of the North-east Coast of England.
[Plates IL—VI.]
TuE following list, though embracing all the species at pre- sent known to me as inhabiting the above-named district, must be taken only as an instalment of what an exhaustive survey would no doubt reveal. The examination of these little creatures is exceedingly tedious and laborious, the points of difference being often undistinguishable except with tolera- bly high microscopic powers. ‘Thus a very small gathering, if it contain any great variety of species, will often occupy many hours in its examination.
By far the greater number of species here noted, or described by foreign authors, are free-swimming animals; some have a special predilection for the fronds of Fuci, and others for muddy localities or the bed of the sea; but little is yet known of the ground-inhabiting forms, and among them there remains doubtless a rich harvest for future collectors.
T'wo of the species described in Baird’s ‘ British Entomo- straca’ it seems impossible to identify— Canthocamptus Stromitt and C. minuticornis. The former name probably applies to
some member of the genus Thalestris, the latter, perhaps, Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. x.
2 Mr.G.S. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda
to a Laophonte. Neither species is included in the following list.
Fam. Calanide, Dana. Subfam. Oazawrvm, Dana. Genus CALANuSs, Leach. (Cetochilus, Roussel de Vauzéme, fide Boeck.)
Calanus finmarchicus (Gunner).
Monoculus finmarchicus, Gunner, Act. Hafn. (1765), x. p. 175, f. 20-25. Cetochilus septentrionalis, Goodsir, Edinb. New Phil. Journ. xxxv. p. 389,
pl. 6. figs. 1-11; Baird, Nat. Hist. Brit. Entom. (1850), p. 835, t. 30.
figs. 1, a-g.
Cetochilus an olinitacits Claus, Die frei-leb. Copep. (1863), p. 171, t. 26.
figs. 2-9,
According to M. Boeck the species described first by Gunner as Monoculus finmarchicus is identical with the Cetochilus hel- golandicus of Claus, and not at all with the species called by Baird Temora finmarchica. Leach’s genus Calanus, however, was constituted to receive Gunner’s species, and is synony- mous with the more recent name Cetochilus, applied by Roussel de Vauzeme to the same animal. Not having the opportunity of reference to the original memoirs of Gunner and Leach, [ must accept as substantially correct M. Boeck’s careful account of this synonymy. ‘The generic name Cetochilus must there- fore give way to Calanus.
The present species, C. finmarchicus, is generally distributed all round the British coast, being met with in equal abundance both between tide-marks and in the open sea. It is said to constitute an important part of the food of the whale.
Genus CLAustA, Boeck.
Clausia elongata, Boeck.
Clausia elongata, Boeck, Oversigt Norges Copep. (1864), p. 10. Calanus Clausit, Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. N, & D. (1865), vol. i. p. 33,
pl. 1. figs. 1-11, 13.
Often taken in abundance, by the surface-net, in the open sea and in tide-pools, all along our coast.
Boeck’s C. elongata is undoubtedly the same species as tha described by myself (possibly a little later, though I am not pertectly sure as to the actual date of publication of Boeck’s monograph) under the name Calanus Clausi?. The differences between this and the genus Paracalanus, Boeck (Calanus, Claus), lie chiefly in the one-jointed inner branch of the first foot, and in the very small or entirely wanting fifth foot of the female. It is, I think, open to doubt whether these ought to
_of the North-east Coast of England. 3
be considered of generic importance; but the separation having been made, it seems best to adhere to it.
Genus Dias, Lilljeborg. Dias longiremis, Lilljeborg. Abundant all round the British Islands, both in the open sea and between tide-marks; frequent also in brackish water.
Genus TEmorA, Baird. 1. Temora longicornis (Miiller).
Cyciops longicornis, Miller, Entomostraca (1785), p. 115, t. 19. figs. 7-9. Temora finmarchica, Baird, Brit. Entom. (1850), p. 228, t. 28. figs. 1, a-g; Claus, Die frei-leb. Copep. p. 195, t. 34. figs. 1-11; Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. N. & D. vol. i. p. 36, pl. 1. fig. 15, and pl. 2. figs. 1-10. Temora longicornis, Boeck, loc. cit. p. 16. Diaptomus longicaudatus, Lubbock. (Not Monoculus finmarchicus, Gunner.) Common in the open sea; and between tide-marks perhaps
the most abundant of all British species.
2. Temora velox, Lilljeborg.
In the autumn months, when the brackish pools of salt marshes have become thoroughly warmed by the sun, this species occurs in such situations in immense profusion. I have only on one or two occasions met with a stray specimen amongst the weeds on the sea-shore.
Genus Istas, Boeck. Isias clavipes, Boeck. Isias clavipes, Boeck, loc. cit. p. 18.
Superior antenne twenty-five-jointed, about equal in length to the cephalothorax ; joints short and broad at the base, and gradually increasing in length to the nmeteenth, which is about four times as long as broad; first fifteen joints of the male antenne bearing each a single club-shaped, ciliated, auditory seta; hinge-joint of the twenty-one-jointed right male antenna situated between the eighteenth and nineteenth joints ; eighteenth joint formed by the coalescence of the normal eighteenth and nineteenth; nineteenth by the twentieth and twenty-first ; twentieth by the twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth. Mouth-organs and swimming-feet as in Centropages typicus. Fifth pair of feet two-branched, in the female having the inner branch of one joint with two terminal sete, the outer branch of three broad laminar joints, the second
of which is produced on the inner margin into a broad spinous 1*
4 Mr.G.S. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine, Copepoda
process: in the male the feet are somewhat similar, but the central joint is destitute of the spinous process, and the ter- minal joint of the outer branch of one side is expanded into a very broad lamina, which is terminated by a broad ciliated seta. Abdomen of the female with four, of the male with five segments. Length, exclusive of tail-sete, 1; of an inch.
Hab. Bridlington Bay; several specimens taken in the towing-net by Mr. E. C. Davison. On weeds in Roundstone and Clifden Bays, Ireland (G. S. B.).
The most distinguishing characters of this fine species are the auditory sete, with which the upper antennz are on their basal portions thickly clothed, and the broadly laminar con- struction of the fifth pair of feet, more especially in the male sex.
Genus CENTROPAGES, Kroyer. (Ichthyophorba, Lilljeborg ; Calanopia, Dana; Catopia (?), Dana.) 1. Centropages typicus, Kroyer. C. typicus, Kroyer (1849), Nat. Tidsskr. Anden Reekke andet Bind, Side 288;
Boeck (1864), Oversigt over de ved Norges Kyster iagttagne Copepoder, .19.
P Ichthyophorba denticornis, Claus (1863), Die frei-lebenden Copepoden,
p- 199, pl. 35. figs. 1, 3-9; Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. N. & D. vol. i. p. 40,
pl. 4. figs. 1-6,
This species occurs not uncommonly in surface-net gather- ings from the open sea, but never in very great numbers, so far as my observation extends. I accept Boeck’s identification of the species with C. typicus of Kroyer, but without the opportunity of myself referring for verification to the original description.
2. Centropages hamatus (Lilljeborg). Ichthyophorba hamata, Lilljeborg (1853), De Crustaceis &c. p. 185, t. 21.
figs. 1-5, 7-9, and t. 22. figs. 9-12; Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. N. & D.
(1865), vol. i. p. 39, pl. 4. tigs. 7-10.
I, angustata, Claus (1868), Die frei-lebenden Copepoden, p. 199, t. 35.
figs. 2, 10-12.
Diaptomus Bateanus, Lubbock (1857), Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2.
vol. xx. p. 404, pl. 11. figs. 1-3.
Centropages hamatus, Boeck (1864), Oversigt &c. p. 20.
Of very frequent occurrence in surface-net gatherings from the North Sea, I have also once taken it sparingly amongst Fuci near low-water mark, between Sunderland and Ryhope.
Subfam. Powrerriw.
Genus ANOMALOCERA, Templeton.
Anomalocera Patersonit, Temp.
Anomalocera_ Patersonit, Temp. Trans. Ent. Soc. (1837); Baird, Brit. Entom. (1850) ; Boeck, loc. cit. (1864).
of the North-east Coast of England. 3)
Ireneus Patersonii, Claus, Die frei-leb.. Copep. (1863). Of common occurrence in the open sea all round the British Islands. Genus PoNnTELLA, Dana.
Pontella brevicornis, Lubbock. Pontella brevicornis, Lubbock, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xx.
(1857), pl. 11. figs. 4-8.
In surface-net off Grimsby and in Bridlington Bay. Amongst weeds in tide-pools near Ryhope, August 1871. Shetland (Mr. Norman).
In a gathering made by Mr. E. C. Davison in Bridlington Bay, this species occurred in great abundance, the contents of the net, which quite filled a six-ounce bottle, consisting of about equal numbers of P. brevicornis, Anomalocera Patersonitt, and larval forms of the higher Decapods.
Fam. Cyclopide. Genus Cyctiops, O. F. Miiller.
1. Cyclops Lubbockit, Brady. C. Lubbockii, Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans, N. & D. vol. iv. p.127, pl. 4. figs. 1-8. In pools of brackish water, Hartlepool, June 1866.
2. Cyclops equoreus, Fischer.
C. equoreus, Fischer, Abhandl. der Akad, der Wissenschaften, Munchen (1860), Band viii. p. 654; Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. N. & D. vol. iv. p- 128, pl. iv. figs. 9-16.
In brackish pools at Seaton Sluice, Northumberland.
3. Cyclops littoralis, n. sp. Pl. I. figs. 9-14.
Superior antenne twenty-two-joited, clothed with long setee, more particularly towards the base ; joints all very short, the two terminal ones, which are the longest, not being much longer than broad, the twelfth and sixteenth much produced and bearing a long seta at the external margin. Inferior an- tenn without a secondary branch, four-jointed ; fifth pair of feet composed of a single three-jointed branch ; caudal seg- ments about four times as long as broad; sete four, the two central ones being alike in length and equal to the three pre- ceding segments.
Hab. Amongst weeds in tidal pools, near Whitley and Ryhope. Rare.
4. Cyclops ovalis,n. sp. PI. III. figs. 1, 2.
Superior antenne twenty-four-jointed, as long as cephalo-
6 Mr.G.S. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda
thorax, slender and nearly equal in width throughout; joints about equal in length and breadth at the base, gradually in- creasing in length towards the apex, the terminal joint being about thrice as long as broad; each joint bearing a single short delicate hair on the external margin, the twenty-second and twenty-third one on each margin, the last having four or five apical sete. Caudal segments about four times as long as broad; seta not much longer than the caudal seg- ments.
Hab. One specimen only, taken off Sunderland in the surface- net.
Genus Orrnona, Baird.
Oithona helgolandica, Claus.
Oithona helgolandica, Claus (1863), Die frei-lebenden Copepoden, p. 105,
Taf. 11. figs. 10-12.
O. spinifrons ?, Boeck (1864), Oversigt Norges Copep. p. 25.
Taken occasionally in the surface-net; plentifully off Sun- derland, August 1871. Frith of Forth, Whitby, and Brid- lington, in gatherings made by Mr. E. C. Davison.
Boeck’s description of O. spinifrons seems to me not to in- dicate any essential difference between it and O. helgolandica, Claus, the chief point being the presence of a minute rostrum in the Norwegian specimens, which is not noted in Claus’s definition. ‘This, however, might be easily overlooked. I have seen it in some of my examples, but have not succeeded in bringing it into view in others, and should, in fact, have probably missed it altogether, had it not been for M. Boeck’s description.
Genus BorckIA, nov. gen.
Like Cyclopina in general appearance. Superior antenne very short, six-jointed, much shorter than the cephalothorax. (Mouth-organs totally different from those of any of the allied genera.) Swimming-feet like those of Cyclops, but very short and broad. Fifth pair of feet one-jointed, laminar, spinous. Abdomen much elongated ; tail-sete short; ovisacs two.
Boeckia arenicola, n. sp.
Second joint of superior antenne the longest, three times as long as broad ; fourth and fifth joints of equal length, two thirds as long as the second; sixth joint scarcely as long as the pre- ceding; third the shortest of all, about one-fourth as long as the second. Inferior antennz short and thick, three-jointed, without any secondary branch, densely beset with rather short and stout seta. Swimming-feet having the marginal angles
of the North-east Coast of England. 7
of the inner branch much produced ; margins densely and finely ciliated ; lateral spines of the outer branch lanceolate, laminar; the basal joint fringed with a row of somewhat similar, but much smaller, spines in pectinate series. Feet of fifth pair consisting of a single slightly curved, club-shaped joint, having on its outer margin one long spiniform seta with two minute ones near its base, at the truncate extremity two similar large setee with an intermediate smaller one, on the middle of the inner margin six subequal curved setee of mo- derate size, and at the extreme angle three of a similar kind but smaller. Abdomen elongated, swollen at the base; caudal segments rather more than twice as long as broad; tail-sete shorter than the abdomen. Length +4 of an inch.
One specimen, dredged on a sandy bottom at a depth of 4 fathoms, off Seaton Carew, September 1871.
The mouth-organs of this animal are of very remarkable structure; but I defer attempting any description or giving any drawing of this species, in the hope of being able to illus- trate it completely from a better series of specimens.
Genus PSEUDOCYCLOPS, nov. gen.
In general conformation resembling Cyclops. Right supe- rior antenne of male without a hinge-joint, but much swollen in the middle. Inferior antenne two-branched, secondary branch nearly equal in size to the primary. Lower foot-jaw like that of Cyclops. Swimming-feet having both branches three- jointed. Fifth pair of feet in the male very complex in struc- ture, the external branch of one side produced into a powerful sickle-shaped clasping-joint, the whole resembling very closely the male copulative organs of some Ostracoda.
Pseudocyclops crassiremis, n. sp. Pl. II. figs. 1-8.
Left superior antenna of male seventeen-jointed ; basal joint large and stout, those next following very short and broad, gradually decreasing in breadth to the fifteenth, which is about as long as broad; last two joints more slender, about twice as long as broad; the whole limb densely beset on the outer margin, especially towards the base, with long sete; antenna of right side ten-jointed, the central joints much enlarged, last two suddenly contracted and similar to those of the left side, antepenultimate joint armed with a strong lateral subfalciform process ; both branches of inferior antennz bearing numerous long, curved terminal setze ; first joint of the lower branch en- larged and truncate at the distal end. Maxillee composed of four digitate lobes, each bearing four long terminal sete.
8 Mr.G.S.Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda
Lower foot-jaw stout, with almost entire margins. Joints of swimming-feet very broad, subtriangular, much produced at the external distal angle. Abdomen slender, consisting of four segments ; tail-sete slender, finely plumose, the longest equal to about twice the length of the abdomen. Length of animal gi, of an inch.
Hab. Off Seaham Harbour, dredged in a depth of twenty to thirty fathoms. Only one specimen taken.
The characters of this genus are very remarkable and strongly pronounced, especially as regards the fifth pair of feet of the male, which are more complex than any thing of the kind hitherto known amongst the Copepoda. Another species referable to the same genus (P. obtusatus, Brady, MS.)
was taken abundantly in the surface-net by Mr. D. Robertson and myself in Roundstone Bay, Ireland, on a calm moonlight night in June of last year.
Genus THORELLIA, Boeck.
Thorellia brunnea, Boeck. T. brunnea, Boeck (1864), Oversigt over de ved Norges Kyster iagt.
Copep. p. 26. k iNadere regional, Norman (1868), Last Shetland Dredging Report,
p- 2965.
One specimen of this species occurred to me amongst Fuci, in pools near low-water mark between Ryhope and Sunder- land, in the autumn of 1871. Mr. Norman has taken it abun- Soy amongst Laminarie in Shetland and at Tobermory in
ull.
The genus differs from Cyclops chiefly in the conformation of the lower foot-jaw, which is transformed into a four-jointed clawed foot. M. Boeck describes also in the same place an- other closely allied genus, Misophria, in which the maxille are formed as in the Harpactide, but with a strongly deve- loped palp; the lower foot-jaws as in Calanus.
Genus CYCLOPICERA, nov. gen.
Superior antenne about as long as the cephalothorax, many jointed, bearing (as in the Harpactide:) a sword-shaped ap- pendage near the distal extremity. Inferior antenne three- jointed, having a minute secondary branch. Upper foot-jaw chelate, three-jointed, the last joint forming a doubly-curved very long claw; lower foot-jaw four-jointed, last two joints forming a long claw, each joint of which bears a spine on its inner margin. Swimming-feet as in Cyclops. Fifth pair of feet small, one-jointed.
of the North-east Coast of England. 9 Cyclopicera lata, n. sp. Pl. III. figs. 3-8.
Superior antenne twenty-jointed, basal joint large, next eight very short and broad, the following six about as long as broad, sixteenth and seventeenth about twice as long as broad, last three shorter and more slender, seventeenth joint bearing a long laminated ensiform seta ; inferior antenne triarticulate, the first joint bearing a minute biciliated one-jointed branch, second joint of about equal length with the first, third very short and bearing a slender terminal claw; maxille two- branched (?), each branch terminating in three long slender sete ; fifth pair of feet very small, laminar, with one basal and two apical sete. First segment of abdomen very short and broad, finely ciliated in the middle of each lateral margin ; caudal segments about twice as long as broad; setee equal in length to the abdomen.
One specimen only, taken amongst weeds in rock-pools at
Roker. Fam. Corycexide. Genus MAcrocHIRon*, nov. gen.
Superior antenne (six to seven-?) jointed; inferior four- jointed, uncinate. Lower foot-jaw very large and powerfully chelate. First three pairs of swimming-feet alike, each branch being three-jointed ; fourth pair with the mner branch small and two-jointed, rudimentary. Fifth segment of cephalothorax long and greatly swollen below. Abdomen consisting of five segments, all short.
Macrochiron fuctcolum, n. sp. Pl. III. figs. 9-18.
Rostrum short, but distinctly angulated; first cephalo- thoracic segment very large, following three small, fifth con- stricted at the base but much swollen and elongated below, equal in length to the preceding. three segments ; abdominal segments short, none of them longer than broad, the first the shortest. Superior antenne of the male seven-(?), of the female six-jomted; last joint of lower antenna very short, bearing several long sete and a long curved claw, which is serrated on its inner margin; terminal claw of the lower foot- jaw very long and strong, suddenly curved at the extremity. First three pairs of swimming-feet short, springing from a large base, the joints short and broad; fourth pair having the outer branch elongated, the inner short, biarticulate, its second joint bearing two apical sete. Fifth pair of feet rudimentary, slightly different in the two sexes. Caudal segments about
* Maxpos, long; yelp, a hand,
10 Mr.G.S. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda
thrice as long as broad; sete short, ciliated, jointed in the middle. Length !; of an inch. Colour dark brown.
Hab. Amongst Fuci near low-water mark between Ryhope and Sunderland. 'T'wo or three specimens.
This approaches very closely the genera Oncea, Philippi, and Antarva, Dana, but does not seem strictly referable to either of them. Probably, indeed, the two are synonymous. One of my specimens differed in some minor points from the others, whence I supposed it to be of different sex, and have so described it here. The species, however, requires further examination.
Fam. Harpactide. Genus LONGIPEDIA, Claus. Longipedia coronata, Claus.
This beautiful species occurred abundantly on a sandy bottom off Seaton Carew, in a depth of four fathoms, also off Seaham Harbour (twenty to thirty fathoms), and among weeds near the Bell-Rock Lighthouse. Mr. Norman finds it in Shetland; and I have myself taken it on the west coast of Ireland.
Genus Ecrinosoma, Boeck. Lictinosoma melaniceps, Boeck. Pl. V. figs. 1-12.
Off Seaton Carew and Seaham Harbour, in company with the foregoing species, but less abundantly.
The characters of this remarkable species are so distinct that I cannot doubt its identity with that described by Boeck, though I have not noticed any thing in my specimens which warrants the term melaniceps. Moreover the fifth foot con- sists of two branches, and not of one only as stated by that author, unless, indeed, the Norwegian animal be a different but closely allied member of the same genus.
Genus 'Tacurprus, Lilljeborg. Tachidius brevicornis (Miiller). Cyclops brevicornis, Miiller, Entomostraca, p. 118. Tachidius brevicornis, Lillj., De Crustaceis; Brady, Nat, Hist. Trans. N. & D, vol. iv. p. 180, pl. 5. figs. 1-9. In pools of brackish water at Hartlepool, Hylton Dene, and Seaton Sluice. Genus Ipya, Philippi. Idya furcata (Baird). Canthocamptus furcatus, Baird, Brit. Entom. (1850). Tisbe furcata, Lilljeborg, De Crustaceis (1858),
of the North-east Coast of England. 11
Tisbe ensifer, Fischer, Beitr. zur Kenntn, der Entom. (1860). e tt ya barbigera (?), Phil. Wiegmann’s Archiv (1843).
Very common amongst weeds in tide-pools.
Genus WeEstwoop!A, Dana.
Westwoodia nobilis (Baird). LHarpacticus nobilis, Baird, Brit. Entom.
One specimen, on Laminaria saccharina at Roker (1871).
Berwick Bay (Dr. Baird).
Genus DELAVALIA, Brady. Delavalia palustris, Brady. D. palustris, Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. N. & D. vol. iv. p. 134, pl. 5. figs, 10-15. In pools of brackish water at the side of the Seaton burn, above Seaton Sluice.
Genus CANTHOCAMPTUS, Westwood. Canthocamptus imus,n.sp. Pl. IV. figs. 1-5.
Animal slender, sublinear. Superior antennee of the female eight-jointed, the fourth, seventh, and eighth joints bearing several long sete, the second and third each three of moderate length, the last joint having also five or six smaller marginal sete arranged in a pectinate series ; rostrum long and slender, curvate. Lower foot-jaw simple, chelate; mner margin of hand bearing in the middle one seta of moderate length. First joint of inner branch of first swimming-foot equal in length to the entire outer branch, second joint very short, third about half as long as first, bearing three terminal sete, the middle one being very long and minutely pectinate at the extremity ; outer branch of fifth pair oblong, having two long apical sete, three shorter ones on outer and one on inner margin; inner branch ciliate on outer, and armed with five long setee (the last of which is excessively slender) on inner margin. Ovisac single, curvate, containing but few (six to nine) ova, ranged in a single plane, and very large in propor- tion to the size of the animal. Length 5! of an inch.
Hab. About ten miles off Seaham Harbour, in a depth of thirty fathoms on a muddy bottom: a few specimens only taken.
Genus LaopHonte, Philippi.
1. Laophonte similis? (Claus). Cleta similis, Cls. Die Copepoden-Fauna von Nizza, p. 23, pl. 5. figs. 13-16,
Amongst weeds in tide-pools at Whitley, Cullercoats, and Sunderland, and in brackish water at Seaton Sluice.
12 Mr.G.S8. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda
My specimens do not entirely agree with the figures and descriptions given by Claus; but 1 am unwilling, without a e more extended examination, to describe them as belonging to a distinct species.
2. Laophonte lamellifera (Claus). Cleta lamellifera, Cls. Die frei-lebend. Copep. p. 123, pl. 15. figs. 21-24. One specimen, on frond of Laminaria saccharina at Roker.
3. Laophonte Hodgit, n. sp. Pl. VI. figs. 1-9.
Upper antennz six- or seven-jointed, those of the male (?) shorter and thicker than those of the female, rather densely setose; lower foot-jaw of moderate size, with a very long and slender slightly curved claw; outer branch of first foot three-jointed, short ; fifth pair of feet foliaceous, larger in the male, the outer branch elongated, having four or six long sete on the apex and outer margin; the inner wider, and bearing internally four or five marginal sete, those situated near the apex being very long. Caudal segments in the female at least four times as long as broad.
Hab, Off Seaham, dredged in twenty to thirty fathoms. Several specimens were taken. I have a mournful pleasure in naming this species after my late friend, Mr. George Hodge, it having been taken during one of the last dredging-excur- sions in which I had the pleasure of his company.
Genus CLETODES, nov. gen.
Animal resembling Laophonte in general appearance. Up- per antenne six-jointed. All the four pairs of swimming-feet alike, and having the outer branch three-, the inner two- jointed. Lower foot-jaw chelate. Lower antenne without a secondary branch.
Cletodes limicola, n. sp. Pl. VI. figs. 10-17.
Animal, when seen from above, elongated, distinctly in- dented at each ring of the body. First segment of cephalo- thorax short, about equal in length to the two following ; second and third abdominal segments produced into spinous processes at the lower lateral angles. Upper antenne in the female much shorter than the first cephalothoracie segment ; first three joints short and nearly equal, fourth about half as long as the third, fifth as long as the third, but much more slender: in the ma/e forming at the third joint a large vesi- culiform swelling, last joimt elongated and uncinate. Swim- ming-feet elongated, slender ; the outer branch ciliated on the
of the North-east Coast of England. 13
margins, bearing at the apex of each joint, on the external margin, a long slender spine; terminal spines long and slen- der; the middle joint has also a long apical seta at the inner margin: inner branch two-jointed, the first joint very small, the second long, almost filiform, and dividing at the extremity into one short and two very long lash-like branches. Fifth foot in the female foliaceous, the outer branch rather the longer, bearing one long seta at the apex and three shorter ones on the outer margin; inner branch with two long apical sete : in the male the two branches are of nearly equal length, very narrow, simple, one branch bearing one, the other two long setee at the apex. The caudal segments short, but longer in the male than in the female; seta one on each segment, scarcely longer than the segment itself. Length 1, of an inch.
Hab. Off Seaham Harbour, in a depth of from twenty to thirty fathoms, on a soft muddy bottom. ‘T'wo specimens only taken. On account of the peculiar structure of the swimming-feet, which were identical in both examples, I think I am justified in referring these to the male and female of the same species. The genus approaches Lilljeborgia of Claus; but the characters given by that author, “ Pedum sequentium (2, 3,4) rami in- ternt rudimentarti, rami externi triarticulati, uncinati,” do
not apply here.
Genus Harpacticus, M.-Edwards. 1. Harpacticus chelifer (O. F. Miller).
Cyclops chelifer, Miller, Entomostraca (1798). Harpacticus chelifer, Claus, Die frei-lebend. Copep. (1863) ; Boeck, Over- sigt Norges Copep. (1864). (Not H. chelifer of Lilljeborg.) Not uncommon amongst weeds between tide-marks, Roker, Whitley, &c. In the open sea, off Seaton Carew.
2. Harpacticus gracilis, Claus. H. gracilis, Claus, Die frei-lebend. Copep. (1863). H, elongatus, Boeck, Oversigt Norges Copep. (1864).
This occurs in the same situations, though not so frequently as the foregoing species. M. Boeck doubts the identity of his H. elongatus with Claus’s gracilis, on account of a difference in the lengths of the antennal joints. This character, however, seems to me to be often subject to considerable variation ; and I should not, without some divergence in other respects, be disposed to separate the two forms. Indeed both approach so closely to H. chelifer that it seems questionable whether they might not be more fitly regarded as varieties of that species.
14 Mr.G.S. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda
3. Harpacticus fulvus, Fischer.
H., fulvus, Fisch. Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Entom. (1860); G. O. Sars, om. 1862 Zool. Reise.
H. curticornis, Boeck, loc, cit. p. 88 (1864).
H. chelifer, Lilljeborg, De Crustaceis ex ord. trib.
Tigriopus Lilljeborgi, Norman, Last Shetland Dredging Report, p. 296.
In pools at or above high-water mark, Bamborough, Cul- lercoats, Marsden. Boeck and Sars both describe this species as inhabiting chiefly pools at or above high-water mark, which are liable to get warmed by the sun. In such situations it is often extremely abundant in our district.
4, Harpacticus niceensis ?, Claus. Harpacticus niceensis, Claus, Die Copep.-Fauna von Nizza, p. 31, pl. 2. fies, 12-14. A few specimens which I doubtfully refer to this species have occurred to me on the fronds of Laminaria saccharina and other Fuci at Sunderland and Ryhope.
Genus ZAus, Goodsir. Zaus spinosus, Goodsir.
Z. spinosus, Goodsir, Edinburgh New Phil. Journ. (1842) ; Claus, Die frei- lebend, Copep. (1863) ; Boeck, Oversigt Norges Copep. (1864). Common on Fuci, and especially on the fronds of Laminaria,
in tidal pools and beyond low-water mark, Roker, Ryhope, Sunderland, Cullercoats, &c. Shetland (Rev. A. M. Norman).
Genus THALESTRIS, Claus. 1. Thalestris longimana, Claus.
Frequent on the smaller weeds and on Laminarie in tidal pools, Roker, Sunderland, Ryhope, &c. Also in the open sea, but more rarely.
2. Thalestris helgolandica?, Claus. On Laminaria in tide-pools at Roker; not common.
3. Thalestris harpactoides, Claus. In the surface-net off Grimsby and Teesmouth.
4. Thalestris Clausii, Norman. T. Clausii, Norman, Last Shetland Dredging Report. Frequent on Laminaria saccharina and other weeds in tide-
pools, Ryhope, Sunderland, Roker, Whitley, &e.
of the North-east Coast of England. 15
Genus DacryLopus, Claus. 1. Dactylopus tisboides, Claus.
On Laminaria saccharina at Roker and Ryhope; scarce. Abundant in brackish pools at Seaton Sluice.
2. Dactylopus similis, Claus.
One specimen, dredged in a depth of four fathoms off Seaton Carew. 3. Dactylopus brevicornis, Claus.
On Laminaria saccharina at Roker ; not common.
4. Dactylopus Normani,n. sp. Pl. V. figs. 13-17.
Closely approaching D. tisboides, from which it differs, how- ever, in the following particulars :—The superior antennz are eight-jointed, and not so densely setose, the proportional lengths of the various joints being as follows :—4, 4, 3, 4, 4, $,4,4%. The secondary branch of the lower antenne biarti- culate, each joint bearing two moderately long sete. Lower foot-jaw (gnathopod) simply chelate; the inner margin of the hand fringed with short sete. Longer branch of the first foot slender, bearing almost at the extremity of the outer margin a short ciliated seta. Fifth pair of feet large; outer branch subovate, bearing three long sete (one at the apex, one on each lateral margin), and three shorter ones on the outer mar- gin between the apical and lateral sete; inner branch ver much smaller, subquadrate, extending only half the length of the outer, bearing four primary sete, two of them long and two of moderate length, the interspaces being densely ciliated.
Hab. Roker, on Laminaria saccharina; rare.
Genus ScuTELLIDIUM, Claus. Scutellidium tisboides, Claus. Pl. IV. figs. 6-10.
One specimen, on the frond of Laminaria saccharina at
Roker. Genus ALTEUTHA, Baird.
1. Alteutha bopyroides, Claus. Often taken abundantly in the surface-net, all round the British Islands. 2. Alteutha purpurocincta, Norman.
A. purpurocincta, Norman, Last Shetland Dredging Report. Peltidium purpureum, White, Pop. Hist. Brit. Crust.
On Laminaria saccharina at Roker and Cullercoats; fre- quent. Shetland (Rev. A. M. Norman).
16 Mr.G.S. Brady on the Non-parasitic Marine Copepoda.
3. Alteutha depressa, Baird. This species, described by Dr. Baird in his ‘ Natural History
of the British Entomostraca,’ is unknown to me, and appears not to have been recognized by any other author. It was
taken by Dr. Baird in Berwick Bay.
Genus Aspipiscus, Norman.
Aspidiscus fasciatus, Norman, Last Shetland Dredging Report, p. 298.
Abundant on the fronds of Laminaria saccharina at Roker, Sunderland, and Cullercoats. Shetland (fev. A. M. Norman).
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Puate IL.
Fig. 1. Pseudocyclops crassiremis (male): animal, seen from right side, x 84. iy. 2. Superior antenna of right side, x 210. Fig. 3. Superior antenna of left side, x 210. Fg. 4. Inferior antenna, <x 210. Fig. 5. Maxilla, x 210. Fig. 6. Lower foot-jaw, x 210. Fig. 7. Fifth pair of feet, x 120. Fy. 8. Last abdominal seg- ments and tail, x 84.
Fig. 9. Cyclops littoralis, superior antenna, X 210. Fg. 10. Inferior antenna, X 210. fg. 11. Mandible, x 210. Fig. 12. Upper foot-jaw (?), X 210. Fg. 18. Lower foot-jaw, x 210. Fig. 14. Abdomen and tail: a, foot of fifth pair: x 210,
Puate III.
Fig. 1. Cyclops ovalis, superior antenna, X 120. Fig.2. Abdomen and tail, x 120.
Fiy.38. Cyclopicera lata, superior antenna, X 210. Fig. 4. Inferior an- tenna, X 210. Fig. 5. Maxilla, x 210. Fig. 6. Upper foot- jaw, X 210. Fig. 7. Lower foot-jaw, x 210. Fig. 8. Abdomen and tail: a, foot of fifth pair; x 120.
Fig. 9. Macrochiron fucicolum, male (?), seen from right side, x 100. Fig. 10. Upper antenna of male, x 220. Fig. 11. Upper an- tenna of female, x 220. Fig. 12. Lower antenna, x 220. Fig. 13. Mandible, x 220. Fig. 14. Lower foot-jaw, x 220. Fig. 15, Foot of fourth pair, x 220. Fig. 16. Foot of fifth pair (male), X 220. Fig. 17. Foot of fifth pair (female), x 220. Fig. 18. Caudal segment and sete, x 220.
PuateE LV.
Fig. 1. Canthocamptus imus (female) : animal, seen from left side, x 100. Fig. 2. Superior antenna, X 250. Fig. 3. Lower foot-jaw, Xx 250. Fig. 4. Foot of first pair, x 250. Fig. 5. Foot of fifth pair, x 250.
Fig. 6. Scutellidium tisboides (female), upper antenna, x 210. Fig. 7. Mandible and maxilla, x 210. Fig. 8. Foot of first pair, x 210. ee Lower foot-jaw, xX 210. Fig. 10, Foot of fifth pair, x 1
On the Myology of Sarcophilus ursinus. 17
PLATE V.
Fig. 1. Ectinosoma melaniceps, female (?), seen from right side, x 84. Fig. 2. Superior antenna, x 210, Fig. 3. Lower antenna, x 210. Fig. 4. Mandible: a, origin of palp, x 300. Fig. 5, Mandible- palp, x 300. Fig. 6. Maxilla, x 300. Fig. 7. Upper foot-jaw, x 300. Fig. 8. Lower foot-jaw, x 300. Fig. 9. Foot of first pair, x 210. Fvg. 10. Posterior abdominal segments and setz, x 120. Fig. 11. Foot of fifth pair, x 210. Fig. 12. Maxillary appendage (?).
Fig.13. Dactylopus Normani, superior antenna, X 210. Fig. 14. Lower foot-jaw, X 210. Fig. 15. Foot of first pair, x 210. Fig. 16. Secondary branch of lower antenna, xX 210. Fig. 17. Fifth pair of feet, x 210.
PuateE VI.
Fig. 1. Laophonte Hodgii, upper antenna of female, x 210. Fig. 2. Upper antenna of male, x 210. Fig. 3. Lower foot-jaw, x 210. Fig. 4. Foot of first pair, x 210. Fig. 5. Foot of fourth pair, x 210. Fig. 6. Fifth foot of female, x 250. Fig. 7. Fifth foot of male, x 250. Fig. 8. Caudal segment of female, x 250. Fig. 9. Caudal segment of male, x 210.
Fig. 10. Cletodes limicola, female, seen from above, X 100. Fig. 11. Up- per antenna of female, x 250. Jy. 12. Upper antenna of male, x 250. Fig. 18. Lower foot-jaw, x 250. Fig. 14. Foot of first pair, x 250. Fig. 15. Foot of fifth pair, female, x 250. Fig. 16. Foot of fifth pair, male, x 250. Fig. 17, Caudal seg- ment of female, x 250.
IL.—Further Observations on the Myology of Sarcophilus ursinus. By ALEXANDER Maca.ister, M.B., Professor of Zoology, University of Dublin, and Director of the Univer- sity Museum.
In the ‘ Annals’ for March 1870 I published an account of the dissection of a young female Tasmanian Devil. Since that time three specimens of this species have been brought alive to the Dublin Zoological Gardens. Two of these still live, and are in an exceedingly healthy condition ; one, how- ever, did not survive its imprisonment for more than a few months; and I have had the opportunity of making a careful examination of its muscles and of repeating my former obse1 vations.
As this second specimen was fresh, a male, and full-grown, it was in far better condition for examination than its prede- cessor in our dissecting-room, which was a salted specimen. This individual was 30 inches long, and his muscles were red, plump, and strong.
The platysma myoides, and indeed all parts of the panni- culus carnosus, were very strong and red, contrasting decidedly with the weak undefined condition which they exhibited in
- Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. x. 2
18 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology
the former specimen. The cervical portion of this muscle formed a thick strong sheet, which passed from the occipital and mastoid regions downwards and forwards, over the mova- ble clavicle and over the humeral region, to be attached to the integument in the vicinity of the elbow. The dorsal and abdomino-lateral and femoral parts of the panniculus were particularly strong.
The muscles of mastication were exceedingly remarkable in their development. The masseter was distinctly bilaminar, the superficial portion being four times the size of the deeper ; the directions of the two lamine were exceedingly oblique. The temporal was of enormous size, three times the size of the external masseter; the pterygoids were smaller, the external being exceedingly feeble; the internal was also small. The most expressive way of representing the enormous size of these muscles is by stating that the weights of the muscles which elevate the lower jaw (masseters, pterygoids, and tem- porals) were equal to the sum of the weights of all the scapular and brachial muscles (deltoids, spinates, biceps, brachiales, triceps, &e.), or to the entire series of muscles which act on the shoulder-joint (pectorals, latissimus dorsi, spinati, deltoids, &c.). This will give some idea of the power with which these formidable creatures can close their mouths. (However, the habits of the two specimens in the Zoological Gardens do not seem to indicate the great degree of ferocity for which the species has got credit.)
The trapezius arose from only four dorsal spines (in my other specimen it extended to seven); the clavicular portion was distinctly attached to the outer third of the clavicle. The central portion of the cervical and upper part of the muscle was directly continuous with the acromial (not the clavicular) deltoid; and, gliding over the shoulder, this portion was in- serted into the lowest part of the deltoidal crest.
The latissimus dorsi was attached to the lowest five dorsal spines, and to the spines of three lumbar vertebre, and only to the tip of the last rib: I was able to separate it clearly from the pectoralis quartus (from which it was not easily distinguished in the last specimen); its tendon of insertion was rather below that of the teres major.
Rhomboideus major was only attached to three dorsal spines. The serratus magnus arose from the seven upper ribs and the four lower cervical transverse processes ; a detached slip arose from the second and third cervical transverse processes, and represented a levator scapule.
The cleido-mastoid was small and separate, one third the size of the sterno-mastoid.
of Sarcophilus ursinus. 19
There were two trachelo-acromiales muscles, as in the otter, one from the transverse process of the atlas to the outer half of the scapular spine; the other arose from the same process further back, and was inserted into the posterior third of the scapular spine. In the former specimen I missed the posterior portion of this muscle.
The supraspinatus is double the size of the infraspinatus, and equal to the subscapularis. There is a distinct small teres minor; I could not separate it in my former specimen. The subclavius was not only attached to the clavicle, but also extended beneath that bone to the spine of the scapula.
The deltoid consisted of three parts :—a clavicular, from the outer half of the clavicle (this I before thought was acromial) ; an acromial, continuous with the trapezius; and a scapular, from the metacromion and anterior half of the scapular spine.
The pectoralis quartus was a strap-like band from the linea alba of the abdomen (extending upwards for *2 of an inch from a point ‘25 above the umbilicus) ; its insertion is above that of the pectoralis minor.
The two tendons of the biceps were very closely tied toge- ther, and the main body of the muscle was radial in its inser- tion; yet there was a very slender ulnar slip. The biceps was twice the size of the brachialis (‘32 oz. :°16 0z.). The extensor mass was very much in excess of the flexors (1°67 oz. : 0°48 0z.). The anconeus externus was inseparable from the triceps, but the anconeeus internus was very distinct. The palmaris was as described in my former paper.
A careful dissection satisfied me that the slip which I had before taken as a supinator longus was really only a slip of the panniculus carnosus—as it had no bony. attachment, but was directly continuous with the continued slip of the pla- tysma: the only supinator is the short one, which nearly equals in weight the pronator quadratus. The extensor secundus digitorum was only attached to the fourth and fifth digits ; and the former digit had two tendons supplying it (in my former specimen there were four tendons—two to the fifth, one to the third, and one to the fourth). A separate slip (ulnaris quinti) existed, which arose with the extensor carpi ulnaris, and, passing in the groove in the annular ligament with the extensor minimi digiti, is inserted into the base of the fifth metacarpal bone.
The psoas magnus and the iliacus are easily separated from each other; these, taken together, are four times the size of the psoas parvus. The pectineus was not double, as it was in the former specimen. The upper slip of the obturator ex-
ternus was semidetached from the rest of the muscle. Q%
20 On the Myology of Sarcophilus ursinus.
The quadratus femoris was very remarkable, arising from the transverse process of the first caudal vertebra, from the tuber ischii, and a tendinous band which passed from the one to the other. Gluteus minimus was easily separable from the medius. A very thin slip represented the obturator internus. Tensor vagine femoris is separate and thin. Sartorius is ex- ceedingly feeble. The biceps flexor cruris arises only from the tuber ischii and two caudal vertebree.
The “ bicipiti accessorius” was quite distinct at its origin, but joined at its insertion to the semitendinosus—which muscle was thus tricipital, having one head caudal overlapping the biceps, one ischiatic, and, thirdly, this accessorius. The two other heads are similar to those which exist for the same muscle in Castor fiber, Atherura, and the Otter. There is a middle head of the gastrocnemius, which joins the external.
The peronsi and tibial muscles were exactly similar to those in my former specimen. The foot-muscles were as follows :— Abductor ossis metatarsi minimi digiti, from the os calcis to the spur of the fifth metatarsal; abductor minimi digiti, a superficial muscle, with a short triangular belly and a long tendon, which arises from the external annular ligament over the peroneei tendons, and is inserted into the fascia over the flexor tendon of the little toe.
The lumbricales were six in number—one to the inner and one to the outer side of the outer toe, a similar pair for the fourth toe, a single internal muscle for the third and one for the second toes.
The rudimental hallux has two muscles—a flexor brevis, which extends from the scaphoid bone to the first phalanx, and an exceedingly fine triangular and superficial adductor, which arises superficial to the palmar interosseous muscle for the index toe, and is inserted into the inner side of the first phalanx of the hallux.
The interossei were three plantar and four dorsal, the former being (1) adductor indicis, (2) adductor quarti digiti, (3) ad- ductor quinti digiti; the latter were (1) abductor indicis, (2) adductor terti digiti, (3) abductor tertii, and (4) abductor quarti digiti.
The only other points worthy of note were the extension of the scalenus posticus to the upper four ribs, of the external oblique to the ten lowermost, the absence of ilio-costal fibres in the quadratus lumborum, an enormous triangularis sterni, a two-bellied depressor of the mandible, whose anterior por- tion is connected to and parallel with the genio-hyoid, with which it agrees in function.
On the Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 21
I1.— The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. By Harry G. SEELEY, St. John’s College, Cambridge.
[Continued from vol. ix. p. 280.] § 3. The Physics of the Skeleton.
The next step after a study of growth is to observe in what directions growth usually occurs; then we may discover the forces which accumulate the energy that results in such growth. All animals of the kinds named Vertebrata have their internal bones arranged in a way which in many respects is the same for them all—a great antero-posterior extension; and this arrangement is named the skeleton. But when animals are contrasted with each other, they manifest differences in the degree of growth, and in the presence or absence of some of their bones; and these peculiarities, being persistent through an immense number of variously modified individuals, give to the skeleton a number of different plans, which admit of being defined. And out of these considerations arise the great pro- blems affecting all bones, which will here be stated. They are :— What is the skeleton, and why has it an existence as a skeleton ? and what are the plans of growth of the skeleton among vertebrate animals, and why do those plans exist ?
Here, then, the skeleton first appears as an accomplished fact, without visible genesis beyond such as may be traced in each individual, where changes are observed to occur in the bones after an animal has left the egg or the uterus, which are in sequence from their first formation to completed growth.
By the skeleton, I understand in the foregoing passage the vertebrate skeleton only ; and I wish, for convenience, to keep the idea of the vertebrate skeleton distinct from other impor- tant osseous machinery of vertebrates, which is better named the appendicular bones, the dermal bones, and the respiratory bones. The reason for this distinction is that the nature of their relation to the axial skeleton must first be demonstrated before it can be reasoned upon. ‘The vertebrate skeleton, moreover, is the only one which is well developed in every vertebrate animal, the other bones being variable and giving characters to the plans of the subordinate sections. Thus the Vertebrata admit of being defined as those animals in which the elongated central nervous system is sheathed posteriorly by a sequence of osseous rings, and anteriorly by a bony box— the rmgs being the vertebree protecting the spinal cord, while the box is the skull covering the brain. This definition in- cludes all the animals classed by zoologists as Vertebrata, ex- cepting the lancelet (Amphioxus), which, for reasons given in
22 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
the chapter on classification, must be regarded as forming a group of equal zoological value with the Vertebrata.
The division of the nervous system and of the skeleton into a long posterior part and a wide anterior part is the essential vertebrate character. And if we are to understand what cha- racters are essential, and why they undergo change, an attempt must be made to state clearly what they are, and why they exist. It will be sufficient, with regard to the spinal column, to know that it is a central, somewhat cylindrical mass, ex- tending the length of the vertebral column generally, giving off at intervals pairs of nerves, and tapering towards the tail. While the brain is posteriorly continuous with the spinal cord, it is much larger, and consists of parts which are sometimes arranged one before the other, and sometimes one over the other; it usually gives off nerves to the eyes, the ears, the nose, &e.
The vertebree have a common basis, on which the neural column rests, and which is a subcylindrical column, called the notochord. When segmented and ossified, it forms the part of each vertebra named the centrum; and this centrum gives attachment to a pair of bones which arch over the spinal cord and are separated from others by the intervertebral nerves ; they may become inseparably united to the centrum or always remain distinct. The skull is made by a number of small bones which suturally unite, or simply overlap each other, so as to enclose the brain, which case usually may be separated vertically down the sutures into three more or less well-defined segments, each consisting of a bone at the base, a bone on each side for the sides of the arch, and one or two bones above vaulting it over. A necessary and separate part of the skull is comprised generally under the terms upper and lower jaws.
Now we have to inquire why these parts exist—in other words, how they come to grow. And all growth has been seen to be organic dialysis, which takes place under the in- fluence of alternating pressure and tension and rest. How, then, does this law apply to the formation of the vertebrate skeleton, and account for the formation of bones so deeply seated and well protected, and for the formation and com- plexity of brains and crania? I will endeavour to explain.
All vertebrate animals are locomotive, and all fish and all immature Amphibia live in water. These animals progress backward, though we usually name the motion forward ; that is, each uses its tail to obtain a leverage by which it retreats, the animal’s head necessarily going where the tail sends it. It is therefore evident that the head, in piercing the water, experiences some pressure alternating with rest, while the
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 23
body experiences a serpentine motion originated by the tail and passing forward. ‘To understand clearly the effects upon the animal of this movement, it will be useful to study it ex- perimentally. If, then, I take an ordinary long bolster, which in its cylindrical form will represent a fish, and hold firmly one extremity of it (which for convenience I suppose to be its tail), and then imitate the movement of the fish by moving the tail powerfully from side to side, it will be seen that the movement propels the feathers towards the free end of the bolster; that is, by granting the bolster a tail, I have elabo- rated for it a head also. Now to apply this principle to the fish. Instead of the force furnished by my hands, there are enor- mous muscles extending down the body ; instead of the bed- ticking for an outer envelope, there is a vertebral column; and finally, instead of feathers inside of it, there is the central nervous system, which, in the young state at least, is centrally fluid. Now, if the tail is set moving as it is seen to move in a fish out of water, the powerful pressure behind will compress the light semifluid substance of the spinal cord and force it to move forward, and this movement is maintained during the life of the individual; it will also by the tension increase the length of the spinal matter relatively to the osseous sheath. The mechanical effect, then, of motion originated by the tail is an immense amount of leverage applied at every point of the curve of the body, which inevitably acts upon the con- tents of the spmal tube in compressing and forcing the sub- stance forward. It also must act, as all tension and pressure have been seen to act, in stimulating the growth of the spinal cord.
Thus there is a persistent influence ever tending to elongate the spimal column. As it was seen that there is an actual forcing of the spinal cord forward, so this growth will tend in the same way. But I have already pointed out how soon the individual power to be modified in form comes to an end, although the forces capable of modifying the organism con- tinue to act,—and that thus the energy of life is not lost, but becomes potential for a time in the parent, and can only be manifested kinetically when a bud or ovum which has in it a capacity for mobility which the parent had not, is thrown off from the organism; and then, under the name of a variety, we see manifested the potential activity of the parent which its organization had previously compelled to remain as poten- tial activity. So that we cannot expect to find these forces producing large visible effects under our eyes in one indivi- dual. But we must expect that im a succession of individuals, each of which remains for a certain period capable of modifi-
24 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
cation, the force which is potential and persistent, and in each individual is renewed, will, as the opportunities for it to take the kinetic form successively arrive, be manifested as fully as it would originally have been in one individual if the organic machinery had been capable of maintaining the nutrition ne- cessary to elaborate growth. I shall thus be justified in reasoning about the species as though it were an individual, and to conclude that the force which has been shown, both theoretically and experimentally, to be competent to produce an elongation of the spinal cord toward the part called the head, actually does produce the effects which it ought to pro- duce. And the way in which this is done depends upon the means to do it: first, the forcing of the nutritive fluid forward necessarily produces an enlargement of the nervous system at the anterior end; and, secondly, the growth forward of the nervous system must cause a pressure which will stimulate special growth in that region; and the parts of the brain which were originally arranged one before each other may come to be forced one over the other by growth forward of the neural tissue pressing into the brain-case.
And when a brain is examined, in it are found large cavi- ties called ventricles, which are the receptacles of fluid, such as we might theoretically expect. And when the brains of the lower Vertebrata are compared with those of the higher Vertebrata, there will be remarked a gradual increase, as we ascend in organization, in the size of the cerebral lobes, which first push the optic lobes on each side so that the cerebrum abuts against the cerebellum, and finally overrides it. There- | fore it must be anticipated that the longer the time for which a vertebrate type of animal has persisted upon the earth’s surface, the higher will be its nervous organization; and hence that extinct animals which seem to be the direct repre- sentatives, so far as their bones go, of existing animals, will, so far as they approach nearer to the common vertebrate plan, have had a lower grade of vital organs. Having seen that the movement of the body would be competent, by governing the direction of growth and the distribution of nutriment, to generate the brain from a pre-existing spinal cord, it is probable that the nerves are in the same way affluents to and sustainers of the spinal column, and that their presence preserves its division into segments.
Having advanced this hypothesis of the vertebrate plan of the central neural system, we will endeavour to see how the nerve-matter becomes coated with the investing skeleton. And to do this, it will be requisite to consider the entire body as a machine capable of manifesting the forces of pressure and
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 25
’ tension, and to examine how the part of the body under con- sideration can be affected by these forces.
It is due to Mr. Herbert Spencer to state that he has endeavoured to grapple with this question; but, although he appreciated fully the simple mechanical conditions of the problem, he seems to me to have failed to solve it. His argu- ment is that when pressure is manifested on alternate sides of a rod, there will be a neutral axis within it which only expe- riences small compressions, and external to that an investing region, where pressure and tension alternate. He then tries to apply that principle to a fish. The principle would be » perfectly applicable to a long bone, and would account for its being hollow or less dense internally ; but it is not applicable to a fish, because there is nothing to correspond to the hollow- ness of a bone in the middle line of the animal; and, on the contrary, the region which should be the unossified neutral axis is the ossified neural skeleton—a condition exactly the reverse of what it should be were Mr. Spencer’s hypothesis true. Mr. Spencer’s error consists in not recognizing that the muscles of the body are, in regard to the production of the neural skeleton, precisely what the weight is which bends a revolving flexible rod—the power which produces a neutral axis, and which also produces the pressure and tension in which we have seen that ossifications arise*.
In seeking to explain this formation of an osseous skele- ton, stead of taking an abstract, impossible archetype to reason from, my argument may be clearer if we examine the conditions of the problem as presented in some animal. Having the choice of animals, among which a Chelonian would be the least suitable, the most difficult skeleton to un- derstand, I select a whiting. The fish manifests locomotive energy ; and to find the source of this mechanical power, I skin her. ‘The skin requires to be dissected off, on account of its close union with the constituent fibres of the muscles ; and in some parts of the body there are attached to it special skin-muscles in addition. The skin removed, there is seen an enormous development of muscles, which are arranged in a very marked way. Fibres extend from the skin obliquely inward toward the skeleton; and these fibres are grouped into obliquely placed muscles, which are arranged along the animal parallel to each other, so as to make large strips of similar muscles, which reach from tail to head. In the tail of the whiting there are four of these strips on each side; and the constituent muscles are so arranged that the obliquity of the
* Principles of Biology, vol. ii. p. 196.
26 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
four series makes a W-like outline when traced externally © from the dorsal to the ventral surface, the upper part of the W being towards the animal’s head. Here, then, is an immense muscular power, so arranged as to act in many directions.
Removing the whole of the muscles, we expose the verte- brate skeleton beneath them, and find that each transverse muscular segment corresponds with a transverse osseous seg- ment ; and that the direction of the muscles of the two middle strips of the W coincides with the direction of the dorsal and abdominal processes of the vertebree, and with the nerves. ‘These middle muscular strips are large compared with the superior and inferior strips; and in transverse section each often shows, by the method of overlapping, an approach to a concentric arrangement of the constituent muscles in the re- gion of the tail. The forces represented by these muscles are, I believe, precisely such in their distribution and combination as theoretically might have been anticipated. But, before considering the effects of their action, it is to be remarked that the discovery of a notochord among the Tunicata lends strong probability to the supposition that the notochord, which ex- tends beneath the neural chord, is not a product, but one of the original foundations, of the vertebrate plan. But, granting a notochord, it is impossible, without a stretch of imagination, under which the reason gives way, to assume the existence of a mass of muscle like that which makes the great bulk of a fish, and then try to account for its segmented condition, as Mr. Herbert Spencer does, by lateral breaking strains. In nature, so far as [ am aware, no such phenomenon exists. And it seems to me as gratuitous to assume the existence of the muscles, in order to have them subsequently segmented by these imaginary lateral strains, produced without any force to produce them, as it is to suppose that the foundation of the vertebral column is laid by breaking strains segmenting the notochord. Before such views can claim to be considered in science, their author is bound to show that an animal is acted upon by lateral forces external to itself, and that an effect of such strains would be to cause the muscular tissues to snap into little short muscles, and that such strains continued would eventually pass through the whole of the animal except its skin and viscera! In the chapter on growth, we have seen that the consequences of strains would be, not a weakening, but a strengthening of the tissues.
In the axial part of a fish, a serpent, or indeed in any ani- mal, the successive segments, both of bone and muscle, are exceedingly similar to each other. Almost at all parts of the trunk two adjacent vertebree can only be distinguished from
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. par
each other by close comparison, if they are in the same divi- sion of the body. And there being this sequence, the form of parts only changing with the changed function of different regions of the body, it will be legitimate reasoning, if we can discover a law capable of accounting for a primitive initial segment, to conclude that the continuous operation of that law would eventually segment the entire animal, 7f an animal capable of being encased in a segmented covering already existed.
According to the laws of growth, we find that differentiation of parts is due to the kinetic energy of the individual or to the potential energy of its organization—and that no organic energy is lost, but becomes accumulated in the individual long after the mobility of the parts ceases, and then is transmitted with and added to the common stock of energy to be inherited. If this inherited energy is such that it is capable of being manifested within the mobile period of life, then it will stamp its characteristic marks upon the organism. But if it is too general to be manifested during that period, it takes a poten- tial form, and may even remain latent for several generations and accumulate, and then, instead of being developed kineti- eally in the individual, it at an early period is merged in the common stock, and appears kinetically in the organization, and potentially in the individual, as a new part.
Thus in Ophidians, which exert continually an intense muscular force upon every joint of the vertebral column, we find that the kinetic energy is manifested in giving to the bones great density, sharpness of definition, and perfect ossifi- cation, but never in the partial formation of a growth like an epiphysis, between vertebre. Yet, if the views which IT urge are true views, there should be some result, in in- creased ossification, of all this muscular power; and the result is found in the numerical increase of the vertebra, so that in Ophidians they sometimes number 400 or 500. But this increase is potential, and takes place at so early a period that the newly added segment (vertebree, muscles, nerves, &c.) is developed equally with the others. If the increase takes place in the thoracic region, it necessarily elongates the viscera; if the tail is lengthened, by comparison the body appears to be shortened.
If we take another type, that of the Anurous Amphibia, which do not display muscular power by: wrigglings which press and pull the vertebrae, as among serpents, but progress by leaping, and keep the body removed from the ground, ex- cept at the caudal style, the power, both kinetic and potential, acts chiefly on the limbs—kinetically in the elongation and
28 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
hollowness of the limb-bones, the ilia, &c., potentially (per- haps) in the formation of investing epiphyses at their ends— but in scarcely an appreciable way upon the vertebree in either form, since they remain both very few in number and short.
It cannot be necessary to multiply these illustrations ; for the same law may be traced in every osseous structure. Where an animal uses any part of the body, the part grows long, either kinetically by lengthening the individual parts, or potentially by increasing their number.
If, now, we generalize these facts in relation to the vertebral column, the result is, that since the potential epiphyses multi- tiply indefinitely and elongate the body, so there must have been a period when the body was short and when the seg- ments were very few—and that the elongation of the body proceeds gradually, and, except in the caudal region, is likely to be arrested by the development of limbs.
It were simplest to assume, if there had been grounds for doing so, a single vertebra as the basis from which the body was formed; but the existence of a notochord among tunica- ries, and the vast gap between Amphioxus and ordinary vertebrates, does not warrant such an assumption ; nor does it indeed enter practically into my theory of a vertebrate. How- ever, if we assume an animal with the viscera of a fish, with a notochord, and with terminal muscles capable of moving the tail, then the consequence of that arrangement would be the formation of a terminal segment, not by breaking a piece off the notochord, but by the muscular action increasing the density of the terminal portion, and this organic dialysis even- tually giving it a structure by which it is chemically separated from the other parts. The direction of the mechanical strain becomes the direction of greatest density, and determines the directions in which the osseous matter is deposited and the shapes which it assumes.
Then, just as the inherited energy of many individuals at last became a force sufficient to differentiate the first osseous caudal segment, so the continuous operation of the same mus- cles goes on accumulating energy for which there can be no outlet in the adult organization, and the energy takes the potential form. It has, in fact, become so powerful that, in- stead of displaying itself only in maturity, it begins to act upon the immature animal at as early a time as the other and ordinary laws of its growth, and in this way gives expression to itself, differentiating a new segment similar to the pre- existing segment—a potential epiphysis, which, growing con- tinuously with the original segment, can afterwards scarcely be distinguished from it. Thus the tail comes to have two
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 29
segments; and so the process must go on, the vertebra in- creasing in number and extending further towards the head, till the basis of a vertebral column is elaborated. So far as I am aware, this hypothesis is in accord with the sum of the facts, and gives an explanation of their relation to each other. And not only does it account for the original existence of a vertebral column, but for its subsequent modifications, and for the repetition of the successive similar soft parts (muscles and nerves) which are correlated with the bones.
But so far we only account for the centrum of a vertebra. In our usual conception of it, especially as seen in the fish’s tail, it includes an arch on the dorsal part, called the neural arch, which covers the neural column, and a similar arch on the ventral side, called the hemal arch, which covers a blood- vessel. In dissecting a fish, the muscles in the tail of the dorsal and hemal sides of the animal are seen fo be as like each other as are the neural and hemal arches; so that it will be in accord with the mechanical basis on which this investi- gation started to conclude that in both cases a like force has produced a like result.
But how? If we grant the differentiation of an initial caudal segment of the notochord by muscular power, then as those lateral muscles of the tail, acting obliquely, enlarge, they would, with increasing force, become competent to set up a separate ossification upon the notochord at each of the mar- gins of their overgrowth. And these points, it is to be re- marked, coincide with the points of origin from the centrum of the lateral parts of the two arches. When once these kinetic epiphyses are brought into existence, the lateral mus- cular attachment would ensure their growth, and the dorsal and ventral muscles would as surely draw them towards each other above and below. Thus the fundamental plan of the tail of a fish in its soft parts supplies the machinery necessary to elaborate the hard parts; and from their less bulk and the greater relative power brought to bear upon them, it would seem not improbable that the neural and hemal arches should be ossified at an earlier period in the history of the organiza- tion than the centrum. And this muscular power would be competent, if the arches long remained separate from the cen- trum, to draw them towards each other, so that the dorsal part of every neural arch would abut against the dorsal part of the arch next behind it. Thus there will come to be formed in- terlocking facets between the arches, of which the anterior will look upward while the posterior will look downward: in most animals the neural arches actually have such. facets, which are known as anterior and posterior zygapophyses.
30 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
In the median lateral line between the great lateral muscles slight transverse processes are sometimes developed; and these may be upon the centrum, or upon the neural arch, or upon the hemal arch, according to the arrangement of the muscles. But the point is one of detail, and not a fundamental part of the vertebrate common plan. As the caudal vertebree progress forward towards the head, they encounter the viscera on the hemal side; and then the hemal arch widens and embraces the viscera, so that the parts called hemapophyses, which in the tail are directed downward, come in the thorax to be lifted up the side of the centrum and directed outward, sometimes attached to the median lateral osseous process, and often con- nate with it.. When the viscera extend to a great length down the body, the lateral transverse processes are not deve- loped as distmct processes; when the viscera have a short extension and the tail is long, they are considerably developed, and then pass forward as epiphyses upon the visceral region, being developed at the point of junction of the hemapophysis with the part of the centrum which supports it. In this form the hemal arch is called a rib. And as the arch widens, new elements come to be introduced into the circle which it consti- tutes—formed toward the ventral surface by the increased expansion given to the ventral strips of muscles, which often become blended with the lower lateral strips.
In this way I conceive the vertebrate common plan to have been elaborated, so far as its osteological structures are con- cerned, by the mechanical machinery with which it is inevi- tably accompanied. And if so, it will be evident that all subsequent variations it may assume in form will be due to a different distribution of the muscular machinery resulting from kinetic growth, while the different proportions of the different regions of the column will be due to potential growth.
In first conceiving of a vertebrate I introduced two ideas— the tail and its product, the head. In obtaining a similar generalized idea of the head to that just given of the body, it may be as well to remark :—that the extension forward of the vertebre will have maintained the spinal cord of approxi- mately uniform size up to the point where, like the constricted neck of a bottle, it abuts against the enlarged terminal part; and that the transition im the dorsal region from neural matter covered by a vertebra to the brain covered by the skull is not dissimilar in kind to the transition seen on the hemal surface, where the tail suddenly expands and covers the viscera, only with this difference—that while the brain ex- periences but very slight fluctuations im size, the viscera are
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 31
constantly undergoing change. Both hemal and neural parts terminate in the head, but under these different conditions— that while the neural arch is being modified for the first time, the hemal arch undergoes its second transformation, which may be altered to some extent by the relation of the two arches to each other; so that, on & prior? grounds, the hemal arch in the skull may be expected to be more complex than the neural arch, and also to more readily assimilate to the heemal arches of the body.
Now, if the brain-substance is supposed to have accumulated at the anterior end of the body as a consequence of the motion and mode of growth of the animal, and quite irrespective of the vertebre, its covering from the very first experienced some different conditions of ossification from those of the vertebral neural arch—supposing, of course, an anterior enlargement of the nervous system to have taken place prior to the entire segmentation of the notochord. Such a view, however, is not supported by the evidence from Amphioxus, since the noto- chord is segmented and no brain developed. And the difficulty of a theory of the skull hinges upon the relative probability of the skull originating prior or subsequently to segmentation of the notochord—because in the one case it will be but an extension onward of the vertebral plan, and in the other case it may have originated apart from the vertebral basis. If the Amphioxus is a distinct type animal from the Vertebrata, we shall not be warranted in reasoning from it to a vertebrate. But, whatever the initial circumstances were which governed the formation of a brain-case, we shall not be justified, except with good evidence, in assuming any other cause to account for it than potential repetition, which under altered conditions has been found competent to produce very different osseous structures in different parts of the vertebral column, especially as the brain offers a surface to be covered different from the spinal cord, and conditions of stability different from the visceral region. It has been seen, with the diverging vertebral pro- cesses, that, under the new conditions, osseous elements come into existence which were not found in the caudal region: similarly it will not be surprising if some new structures are developed in the head by the special influences working in that part of the body.
Suggestive evidence of original unity of origin, direct or indirect, for the whole skeleton, is supplied by the skull being segmented, as it is shown to be by well-made researches ; for if it had originated independently, no trace of segments could be anticipated, but an arrangement of bones with which the spinal column would have at first nothing in common, though
32 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
eventually its potential energy would influence their arrange- ment, and gradually bring the structure of the brain-case into harmony with the vertebral plan. Thus there are three pos- sible ways of formation for a skull :—1Ist, potential repetition of the vertebrate plan; 2ndly, independent ossification; and, 3rdly, independent ossification modified by potential repetition. The facts of the case are such that it is quite possible to select examples which would sustain each of these views. Thus among the shark tribe, the bony cerebral envelope is made up of homogeneous osseous particles which show no indication whatever of segmentation. And, in the absence of evidence of division of the head into separate bones, it would be an unwarrantable use of the imagination to suppose that the divisions had once existed and have become obliterated. This would seem to be a type of those examples of the skull which have originated independently of the vertebral column and before it extended the whole length of the animal. The ser- pent might be taken as a type in which the skull might have originated as a natural consecutive part of the vertebral sys- tem; while for the third type we might instance fishes like the sturgeon or animals like the Chelonians, where the brain is first sheathed in homogeneous cartilage which may have been formed independently of the vertebral system, then this is covered with osseous plates, which reproduce with some modifications the vertebral elements.
Thus there must always be a conflict between potential energy, in organization, leading to uniformity and simplicity, and kinetic energy, leading to variety; and the longer any type endures in time, the more closely its cerebral region will approximate to the vertebral structure, so far as the grouping of the bones is concerned; thus in the human subject the structure of the brain-case is more simple and the segments are better marked than is the case with fishes; so that a theory of the skull will depend upon the organization of the animal, which determines the relative influence of kinetic and potential ossification.
The human brain-case, being almost entirely a potential ossification, is one of the simplest. It consists of some (three) bones at the base, in the median line, called in sequence basi- occipital, basisphenoid, and presphenoid, the basisphenoid and presphenoid in the adult being united together as one bone. The basioccipital immediately follows the centrum of a vertebra; and these bones are to the skull what the centrums would be to three segments of the vertebral column. On each side of this row of skull-bones are placed three other bones (a side bone to each base-bone), which rise up to embrace the
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 33
sides of the brain. They are called (in sequence from behind forward) exoccipital, alisphenoid, and orbitosphenoid, and have the same sort of relation to the base-bones that the lateral elements of the upper arch of a series of three vertebre have to the three centrums out of which they rise. In the vertebra the upper bones, called neurapophyses, enclose the neural substance, meeting above it. In the skull they do not meet above ; but just as with the lateral elements of the inferior vertebral arch, in the transition from the true caudal region to the preanal or visceral region osseous elements come to be introduced between them in some animals, which did not exist in the tail, so in the transition from the upper arches of the vertebree to the upper arches ef the skull, enlarged to cover the brain, a sequence of bones is introduced, to roof over the cavity, to which there is nothing corresponding in the vertebral region. ‘These bones, counting from behind forward, are named supraoccipital, parietal, and frontal. And all the bones enumerated differ from those of ver- tebree in touching each other throughout their lateral margins by sutures or overlap—a condition which in the vertebral column is only met with exceptionally, as in the cervical re- gion of the rays, pipe-fish, &c., and a part of the vertebral column called the sacrum, in many land-animals. And these bones touching each other throughout their extent, enlarge the cranial cavity much in the same way as a sea-urchin en- larges its covering shell. In the human skull there is some- thing more, however; there are bones which have existence in relation to the senses: such are some bones which come in between the first and second segments of the skull, and are connected in a more or less evident way with the ear; they have been named collectively the otic bones. Then, between the second and third segments, though external to them, is usually one bone or more, developed seemingly i in relation to the eye: the lachrymal (and, perhaps, the malar) is such a bone. And in front of the brain there are bones which have relation to the nasal functions, and are named generally the ethmoid bones. In possessing these sets of bones the bony investing girdles of the brain differ in plan from the investing girdles of the spinal column.
If, now, we ask why there should be three segments in this bony box for the brain, and why not an indefinite number of segments as in the vertebral column, and why the structure of the skull should become simpler the higher we ascend in nervous organization, so that the three segments become more and more well defined, the answer is, that the division be-
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. x. 3
34. Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
tween the segments is maintained by senses which are not repetitions of each other, that the brain has a terminal sense anteriorly, and that by the bones touching each other on every margin, along all of which they can grow, there is in the skull an exercised facility for kinetic growth, which ren- ders it impossible that potential growth should be manifested. If, for instance, a potential epiphysis of the frontal segment of the skull were to be formed, it could only be developed
etween that segment and the parietal segment; and it could only reproduce, to mark its division, a new pair of eyes behind the old pair. And it is impossible to conceive of such a change taking place except as the only way in which the energy of the animal could be manifested. While, therefore, the bones of each segment remain separate from each other, and permit growth within, it is impossible that any cerebral increase, supposing for a moment it were competent for such an end under any circumstances, could result in the formation of a new segment. Then (no matter how the mammalian skull originated), being segmented by the sense-capsules, it must ever have been sub- jected with greater and increasing influence to the potential power of the vertebral column, which will be manifested in bringing the plan of the segments of the skull more and more into harmony with the plan of the vertebree, and so will obli- terate any differences due to origin or number that there may have been, in an earlier condition, between the structures of the different segments.
Neglecting for the present the jaws of the potential skull and the whole question of the nature of the inferior arches to the segments, I would draw attention to the question whether the potential character is always an induced one.
In most sharks there is no differentiation whatever of the brain-case into constituent bones. In a specimen of the angel shark in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, there appears on the base of the skull to be a faint indication of a transverse division. And it might be presumed that the seg- ments would originate first, and then that each segment would put on the divided condition; but I doubt whether the ten- dency to potential increase is the same in the neural arch and centrum ; for in many sharks the neural arch appears to be double, to have been formed originally at each end of the centrum, though often one of these arches has more the aspect of a supplementary arch introduced between two centrums ; moreover the fact that in paleeozoic fossil fishes the centrum is rarely ossified would lead us to anticipate that in the skull the base-bones would be the last formed and least well defined ; so that in conceiving of a skull induced potentially upon the
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 35
basis of a shark’s skull, it would be quite consistent with the vertebrate plan to have a greater number of superior arches than of median base-bones.
But in those ordinary osseous fishes in which the several bones can be separated from each other, we find the skull in no transitional state, but already with the elements well de- fined, except at the base of the skull, where the kinetic ossifi- cation persists as a long median bone called the parasphenoid or basitemporal. And in the upper part of the skull, besides the three ordinary arches such as have been described, there come to be introduced three additional, imperfect arches, ana- logous to the intervertebral neural arches of sharks, and which I interpret as potential representatives of those structures. The first pair, in front of the frontal bones, are named the prefrontal bones, one on each side; the second pair are be- tween the frontal bones and parietal, and are named post- frontal; the third set are between the occipital and parietal, and are named the interparietal bones: these latter only per- sist in the skulls of the higher Vertebrata.
It is to be remarked that in fishes the cranial bones overlap each other in the squamous way in which an ordinary zyga- pophysis laps upon its fellow.
And it appears to me probable that Prof. Owen truly appre- ciated the homology of the bones which roof in the skull when he compared them to the small ossification which often crowns the spimous part of the vertebral neural arch, which is by him named the neural spine, since without that ossification it would be more difficult to see why the lateral bones should not curve upward and roof in the cranium.
It is also worth considering whether in osseous fishes the potential growth may not have a direction, so to speak, given it by the influence of cerebral form, because it is observed, in skulls of equal size, that in Lophius, which has the cerebellum very short and small, the occipital region of the skull only measures 2 inches in length, while in the tunny, which has the cerebellum large, the oécipital part of the skull measures 44 inches in length ; so that, since some fishes (like the eels) have olfactory lobes to the brain almost as large as the cerebrum, it may not be impossible that such a condition in fishes may have had a tendency to promote differentiation like that seen in the separation of nasal bones from the prefrontal in some Chelonians.
Now, just as in the more osseous fishes the parts of the divided neural arch become blended, and the centrum becomes more solid, so in the higher Ver tebrata the prefrontal and post-
frontal bones have become lost under the uniformity induced 3%
36 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
by potential growth—if ancestors of such animals are con- sidered ever to have had such bones.
This being, as I suppose, the mode of origin and plan of growth of the neural arches of the skull, I turn to explain the inferior arches.
In sharks the head is singularly instructive in the relation of the jaws to the skull; for there they are seen to be free structures which are merely appended to the brain-case. This condition, permanent in the shark, is embryonic in what are called higher Vertebrata.
The jaws are the entrance to the digestive canal ; and there- fore we must anticipate that they will be surrounded with bones which are the representatives of those which encompass the digestive organs in the region of the vertebral column, viz. of ribs. Prof. Rathke, describing the embryonic develop- ment of the jaws in serpents, records that “that part of the investing mass of the notochord in which the basisphenoid is developed in many animals sends out a ‘ray’ or band down- wards on each side, which presents a remarkable similarity to a rib, not only in its mode of origin, but in its original posi- tion and form.” “ But very early there grows out from near the upper end of the ray a long thin process, which passes off at an obtuse angle to it, and applies itself to the inferior wall of the future brain-case.” Now this condition is that of an ordinary rib of a fish. There is a long rib, as in mammals ; but near its junction with the vertebra it gives off by articu- lation a long thin epipleural element, homologous with that of Crocodiles, [latteria, Birds, &c.; so that I see no reason to doubt that the jaws are developed primarily as one rib, the epipleural elements of the two sides being directed forward and meeting in the middle line, so as to form the palate, and the ordinary pleural elements being directed downward so as to meet and enclose the digestive tube below. ‘The ribs of fishes are simple ; but in reptiles and birds and mammals they become segmented ; and there appears to be no limit to the number of parts which may be included, while the degree of ossification 1s various. In some animals there are five parts.
In the serpent the epipleural element. becomes segmented into the pterygoid, palatine, and maxillary bones; while the rib itself is divided into the quadrate bone proximally, then the articular bone, and then the elements of the lower jaw, which surround the cartilage and may number as many as five. ‘The cranial representative of the rib always articulates with the squamosal bone.
It must at once occur to any one to ask, if the cranium consists of three segments, and only the middle one developes
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 37
arib, what has become of the ribs to the other segments ? And it was the difficulty that there is in meeting this question in the higher Vertebrata, which led me (in a former paper*) to regard the occipital and frontal segments of the skull as standing i in the same relation to the parietal segment as the epiphyses of a vertebra stand to its centrum. But remember- ing that, no matter what the potential power may be, it can only ¢ rive great development to a structure when coincident with functional growth, we should no more be justified in anticipating ribs to all the cranial segments than to all the vertebral segments ; and with many animals parts of the ver- tebral column will be devoid of ribs. Yet as the upper arches of the skull retain characters which long previously became lost to the upper arches of the vertebral column, so we might with more reason expect the lower arches to be present in the skull than in cervical or lumbar vertebree. Accordingly, if we examine a skull, and remove all those bones which we have regarded as modified from a functionally developed rib (which we name the jaws), there will be found in front of their point of attachment, and under the frontal segment, two . bones, named the vomeres ; sometimes they become ‘anchy rlosed into one median bone. And anterior to these bones, and bent up over them frequently, are the ethmoid bones, which simi- larly may become anchylosed. Thus we again have the re- presentative of a rib with its epipleuron. By segmentation the ethmoid developes the nasal bones; and it 1s probable that by segmentation the vomer forms the premaxillary. Thus the pene rib conforms in plan to the posterior rib, and, like it, embraces an organ which, in the lower animals, 1s only that of smell, but which, by potential g growth comes, in the higher vertebrates, to be the respiratory region. So that, just as there are distinct tubes for breathing and for swallowing in the land Vertebrata, so distinct tubes are made for those offices in the skull by the prolongation forward of thé dorsal respiratory tube till it is embraced by the first pair of cranial ribs, while the digestive tube, not prolonged so far forward, is embraced by the second pair. :
It is not so easy to find the third pair; and only on turn- ing to the fish is the homology evident. At each side of the back of the skull is a bone attached to the periotic bones, named the hyomandibular; and to this bone is attached in front the circle of hyoid bones; and attached to it behind are the opercular bones; so that there is again a forked rib va- riously segmented for the third arch.
* “ Outline of a Theory of the Skull &c.,” Annals, 1866, xvii. p. 345.
38 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
With the termination of branchial respiration (and the branchial arches appear to represent the epipleural elements of cervical ribs) the function of the pleural element of the first cerebral arch appears to cease, and the bones of the operculum are no longer developed; and in the same way, when the respiratory function becomes changed, so that the animal breathes by lungs, the branchial bones are merged in the hyoid; the hyoid loses its heavy osseous character, and has a less firm attachment to the hyomandibular. This bone then gives attachment to the quadrate, and becomes the main sup- port for the mandible ; so that it appears to be the bone which among the higher Vertebrata is named the squamosal. In the fish there are bones in front of the quadrate bone which are called metapterygoid and symplectic. I have doubted whether these bones may not have originally stood in the same relation to the second visceral arch which the hyo- mandibular held for the first, since they persist, the meta- pterygoid becoming the quadrato-jugal, and the symplectic becoming the supraquadrate ; and they both appear ultimately to be absorbed into the squamosal. If this view were taken, it would in no way be inconsistent with fact, and would only show that the lower jaw had been carried a stage backward, while it would explain the existence of two otherwise obscure bones, and justify their disappearance under the influence of potential growth in those animals in which they are wanting, since in the Amphibia is seen a similar lateral joming-up and absorption of the branchial arches into the hyoid.
Already it has been remarked that the lower jaw always articulates with the squamosal bone, the squamosal bone being, as we have just seen, apparently the proximal element of a visceral arch. Sometimes the squamosal bone itself is free, as in serpents ; but usually it is firmly fixed in the skull. Sometimes, also, the quadrate bone is firmly wedged in the skull, as in Crocodiles, Chelonians, Hatterta, and most of the extinct Monocondylia; but there is no evidence whatever of any other part of the lower jaw (as the os articulare) being united with the skull» And in all those animals in which the quadrate bone is joined with the skull, the lower jaw remains composite. In the highest Monocondylia (birds) the quadrate bone remains distinct, while the squamosal bone has entered into the skull in the same way as in mammals, and furnishes a concave articulation for the quadrate bone exactly like that which in mammals is given to the lower jaw. Now, in so far as the lower jaw occupies the position of a rib, the influence of potential growth upon it would be to make it ever more and more like a rib in simplicity of structure: hence I pre-
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 39
sume that when, in the mammal, one continuous ossification joimed up all the splint elements of the lower jaw, the os arti- culare and quadrate bone, as natural elements of the same rib, could be no exception, and that there is nothing more re- markable in this union than in any of the other transitions to simplicity and uniformity and order which are produced by potential growth.
And it may not be uninteresting to remark how much the vertical part of the lower jaw in any herbivore reproduces of the form of the quadrate bone in such an animal as a bird, and how the inflection of the lower jaw in marsupials and rodents reproduces such an inflexion as characterizes the os articulare in birds and many reptiles. These growths in the mammal may, I conceive, be potential repetitions. In the mammal the pterygoid is moderately developed and is directed downward posteriorly, and not backward as in birds and lizards ; so that it does not actually meet the representative of the quadrate bone; but the union is kept up by the ptery- goideus muscle, attached from the outer inferior side of the pterygoid to the inner side of the quadrate portion of the lower jaw.
I am aware that Prof. Huxley has supposed that, contrary to all analogy, the quadrate bone and os articulare enter the mammalian cranium and become the malleus and incus. After reading all that has been said for that doctrine, I can see no evidence in its favour sufficiently strong to dissuade me from stating my own view. If it has been important to con- struct those bones out of pre-existing cranial elements, I would suggest that Prof. Huxley might have taken the quadrato- jugal and symplectic, which were available and would have answered equally well. But I do not think any exigency of theory can justify the creation of a new joint in the body by imagining a convex articulation beneath the articular bone, when there is nothing in the vertebrate province to suggest that such an articulation might exist.
Such, divested of details, is the conception of the common plan of the axial skeleton which, by the operation of the laws of organic energy, may, I believe, call all skeletons into exis- tence, extending them over the viscera like a pillow-case over a pillow, till the animal is gradually but inevitably sheathed in rings of bones. And thus it will be remarked that the pre- existing soft animal would have no necessary correlation of soft vital parts with its osseous sheath.
I touch with reluctance, because of its difficulties, on another part of the skeleton, which seems as though only appended to the vertebral column, already discussed by Prof. Owen, in his
40 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
treatise on limbs, and by others. Each limb consists of a sequence of bones, of which the number of parts in each seg- ment in most animals increases from above downward, and is usually the same, part for part, in the fore limb and in the hind limb. Thus in the first segment there is one bone, the humerus or femur ; in the second segment two bones, the ulna and radius or the tibia and fibula; in the third segment three bones, in the proximal row of the carpals or tarsals; in the fourth segment four bones, in the distal row of the carpus or tarsus ; and in the fifth segment the five digits. Variations occur in great number, but chiefly by suppression of parts; and so true is the correspondence in general, that Professor Humphrey offered an interpretation of the structure by sup- posing that there were originally in each hmb five rays, which in the humerus are blended into one, while in the pha- langes they remain more frequently distinct.
It will be necessary to ask, what are these limbs, and in obedience to what mechanical law are they where found, and why do the fore and hind limbs correspond in their parts ?
But, besides the limbs, the skeleton possesses the arches with which they articulate :—for the hind limb a pelvis, made up of an ilium, ischium, and a pubis; and for the fore limb a scapular arch consisting of a scapula and coracoid, and some- times having associated with it a clavicle and interclavicle.
If we turn to comparative anatomy for an explanation of the phenomena, in sharks and rays the pectoral and pelvic regions will be found to be well developed, and Jong limbs are attached to them which are already well segmented and limited at the sides to fore limbs and hind limbs. In osseous fishes, however, the fins represent, as a rule, more than two pairs, and are often strongly developed down the back. So the first difficulty is, why should there be but two pairs of limbs? 'To that question, perhaps, an examination of a skeleton will fur- nish an answer ; for the two arches will be seen to be at the two ends of the primitive soft animal enclosed by the skeleton, and at the two chief points of flexure of the skeleton—one where the neck bends with the body, the other where the tail bends with the body; and in those animals in which there is little or no special flexure in one part more than another, limbs are wanting, the potential tendency to the development of limbs nevertheless notwithstanding. Now if we can dis- cover why they are wanting, we obtain a clue to their law of development.
In serpents the power expended in motion is distributed equally along the whole body, and there is scarcely greater pressure in one part than in another; so that its influence
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 41
upon growth is only seen in the great length of the ribs. Now, if the body were stiffer in the middle, and flexible chiefly in the neck and tail, then, instead of intermittent pressure being distributed uniformly, it would be manifested chiefly at the two extremities of the stiffer part, which, touching the ground, would be lifted by the movements of the head and tail. If, then, a large part of the pressure and tension which, distributed over the body, elongate the ribs of Ophidians, were accumulated in this or some such way (by movement of the body) at these points, whatever osseous structures pre-existed there would grow ; and potential growth would tend to make the parts at the anterior end of the body correspond with those at the posterior end. What parts, then, would there be exist- ing in such places? Clearly some element of the abdominal rib—elements, it may be presumed, which become the coracoid bones and the ischia. As the ribs become segmented into a number of parts in different animals, it is not easy to guess how many were developed ; but as the facts of the case only require two (coracoid and scapula, and ilium and ischium), these may be presumed to be the second and third segments of the rib. Now the consequence of setting up a special ten- dency to grow in these elements can in no way interfere with the growth of the original rib, which, being joined to these hemal elements by overlap and by muscles, would, I suppose, slide over the outside of these new growths, which would extend inside of it. And I should regard the epipleuron as eventually forming the clavicle and the pubis, while the suprascapular is an effort of potential growth to reproduce the original rib from which the arch-elementsthave become detached.
But how account for the limbs?~ Did they spring into ex- istence ready formed, or grow gradually ? and, in either case, how? I cannot but be impressed with the forked character of the limb, dividing in its second segment, as reproducing the forked character of the visceral arches of the cranium and of the vertebre; and therefore I believe that, in the absence of any other evidence of a distal osseous fork, we can only look for the proximal element of a limb in the proximal element of a rib. And so I conceive that the increased mus- cular power of the pectoral or pelvic girdle might detach the proximal part of the rib from its attachment with the vertebra and draw it on to the already expanded hemal elements—and that potential growth, such as reproduces the lizard’s tail and the salamander’s legs, would cause its distal segments to be developed anew at the distal end, although the proper distal segments now gave attachment to the proximal end. With the bone would necessarily follow the muscles ; and potentially
42 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin
added segments would comprise both hard and soft parts. In the absence of evidence, I can only throw out this idea as com- pleting a conception of the skeleton as a whole. It explains the origin of limbs simply as a modification of pre-existing structures, without calling any new part into existence ; It explains the harmonious segmentation of fore and hind limbs, and the increase in number of bones in the successive distal segments (as well as the primitive separation of the arches from the vertebrae), which are the fundamental points of structure in a limb. And no idea of epigenesis from the arches, as suggested by Professor Owen, could justify either one condition or the other. The only other obvious origin for the limbs is by potential growth repeating the structure of the jaws with their segments upon each of the arches, first on the pectoral and afterwards on the pelvic arch, which is simple and so far a preferable view. And if the limbs were regarded as potential jaws, the fact that there are thus two modified appendages to the body may explain why the three segments of the brain-case have only one functionally developed hemal arch, the other two, by potential growth, bemg removed to the pectoral and pelvic arches.
This conception of the skeleton as originating in a single ossification, and attaining all its complexity by growth in a definite direction, which is sustained by laws coextensive with the universe, and modified in the limbs by the circumstances of existence, has a unity of plan, and gives a reason for every variation which it displays. And if we believe that animals have been changed in form and stature by the continuous operation of those laws of energy which, by changing the minutie of every thing that cognizance extends to, preserves for them uniformity, order, and progress, then such small va- riations from this common plan as give the distinctive marks to each group of animals are themselves but an evidence of the larger range of those laws which give the animal its unity and one harmonious government with all things. Because this unity is mcontestable, I believe in this change as a condition of its stability ; but whether it is named creation or whether it is named evolution, no name can extinguish the unbounded harmony of the relations which it exhibits, or the unvarying order in the changes to which names are but paths, or can part a knowledge of the universe in its government from an unutterable and reverent confidence. For to me it indicates, beyond laws and their consequences, what, judged by human standards, is Intelligence, of which laws in their working are manifestations. If, then, an attempt is made to explain the plans of animal life, it is in faith, born of science, that they
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 43
are products of divine law, and in a conviction of duty to seek out its working in all ways.
The scheme of the skeleton now sketched is what may be named a potential skeleton ; and whatever value it has is in the insight it gives into the tana to each other of the parts of skeletons and the importance of resemblances between similar parts in different skeletons as evidence of genetic rela- tion. All the types of vertebrate animals are based upon this general plan, and each differs from the other m some compa- ratively slight details of potential growth; and there is no- thing peculiar i in the genera eee to onal of these minor types except a varying growth, or suppression of growth, or combinations of erowths: in the different bones of the body : such modifications are the kinetic skeleton. If we find simili- tudes between bones when they are compared together, the comparison becomes meaningless and unprofitable unless we believe the similitudes to be consequences of laws which can be traced in their effects. The idea of affinity expresses faith in such laws by teaching that the structural resemblances be- tween animals are a consequence and evidence of an original community of plan now only seen in fragments. And an original common plan for vertebrates, a potential skeleton, implies that the physical laws of nature producing growth have upon their simpler product acted in differing ways, so that the energy of the type became manifest in the divergence of special different parts which make the plans of the several vertebrate classes.
Hence the practical question, affecting all comparative study, after the mind has cancelled whatever osteological structures are variable in the type (and therefore demonstrabl kinetic), is to discover in what direction each order has di- verged from the common plan, and in what way this diversity obscures or renders clear its affinities with the other orders. To put a special case :—in what direction. relatively to the vertebrate common plan is the osteology of a tortoise deve- loped ? and how far from this osteology can we inter a com- munity of divergence between the tortoise and all other or any other known animals? Those points of divergence in the potential skeleton would be the osteological affinities of an animal, and, determined for a number of leaders types, would eaaplen us to predicate within approximate limits the characters of many extinct orders of which the existence is at present hardly suspected.
To examine such a problem, it is necessary to be familiar with the facts which are factors in it; and so to these we must next turn.
44 On the Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton.
The correspondence of parts is frequently close between animals which would not be placed by classifiers in the same natural group; so that, as animals can only have diverged in many different directions, or in directions which are approxi- mately parallel, it is impossible not to believe that the corre- spondence is the evidence of some kind of parallel relation between the groups, which may, of course, be a parallel func- tion kinetically modifying different common plans, or parallel plans kinetically modified by different functions. Hach verte- brate class consists of orders, but if these are arranged in sequence of classificational semblance, their bones do not graduate from one group into another: the lowest mammal does not graduate into the highest bird, nor is there a sequence from the bird down to the reptile. Classifiers, however, have always agreed that there is something unnatural in the best grouping “according to a logical system, because it removes from near association animals which have real affinity with each other. Nor can this be surprising, when we remember that by a class of animals is practically understood a certain horizon or grade of complexity of soft structures. So that if the organization of the bird, for instance, has any relation of affinity with mammal or reptile, the relation must be with some specified order of reptile or mammal, and must be due to their all having diverged in the same direction from the common plan, all being the consequence of a line of variation which has preserved parts of the skeleton unaltered for them all, while the soft parts have become more and more complex, in such ways that the ordinal stem has been divided at inter- vals into parts which are successively named, it may be, fish, reptile, and bird. If there is foundation for such a view, ‘there
can be no such close osteolo- gical resemblance between the different natural groups of ani- mals upon the same horizon of organization as there must be between some animals upon that horizon and some animals upon another horizon. This proposition may be exempli- fied by a diagram of a hand, where there may be supposed to be five stems, springing from a common plan, and it might be better exemplified by taking the entire limb as a type, w here the humerus would stand for the common plan. Such a diagram expresses the idea that
_ Bird. Reptile. Fish.
\ common One ]
A ve
Mr. H. J. Carter on the Spongozoon. 45
the resemblance between the different groups of reptiles, for instance, is a correspondence of homologous parts, and no evidence of the orders having had an immediate parentage in common. Such a doctrine invites investigation. Here T can but state it, and try to show hereafter in what way such por- tions of it as practically concern the student of reptile bones may be profitably studied.
IV’ —Proposed Name for the Sponge-animal, viz. “ Spongo- zoon ;” also on the Ori. ‘agin of Thread-cells in the Spongiade. By I. J. Carter, F'.R.S. &e.
As it has now been. satisfactorily determined that the Spon- ciade are animals and not plants, and the form of the animal which produces them has also been determined, it becomes necessary to give that form a specific name, and to define the animal, in order that henceforth both may not only be used by the zoologist, but by the comparative anatomist, whose lectures without such additions now cannot be considered complete, the time having passed for the comparative anato- mist and the botanist to dispute respecting the kingdom to which this class of beings may belong.:
The name that [ would propose for this purpose is ‘ spon- gozoon,” which is only the Greek rendering of “ sponge- animal,” but retaining “ sponge” for the root will ever ally it to the ’Spongiade, and thus aid the memory by associations which any other term differently compounded would not do.
Spongozoon, or the sponge-animal, then, I first poimted out in Spongilla, in 1857 (Annals, vol. xx. p. 28, pl. 1. fig. 4), wherein it is shown that it is a granuliferous polymorphic body possessing a nucleus and one or more contracting vesi- cles (p. 30), that it exists in communities of a spherical form with a common circular aperture (figs. 2,3, 5), in countless numbers, in the sarcode of the sponge (fig. 1), and that it is
capable of taking into its body crude material and of dis- charging the undigested portions after the manner of Ameba ; lastly, that the circular aperture opens and closes itself as required.
Then, in 1859 (Annals, vol. iii. p. 14, pl. 1. fig. 12), the
same monociliated body is described and figured with two ear- or spine-like points of its sarcode, one on each side the cilium, which, I might also add, now stands in my journal as it was ‘fio ured Aug. 12, 1854, 1 although not published until 1859 ; and that I had been previously acquainted with the existence of the spines may be seen by the following passage in the paper to which I have last referred, viz. :—“ But there
4G Mr. H. J. Carter on the Spongozoon.
is one [monociliated body] in particular, which has two spines or ear-like points projecting backwards, one on each side of the root of the cilium (pl. 1. fig. 12), and this was the kind which I first discovered and described; but, confounding it with cells not possessing these spines (because I then thought the spines might be accidental prolongations of the sarcode), I did not give it this character.”
That I might have been right in this conjecture, the poly- morphic nature of the whole of this body will presently show.
In June 1866, Prof. James-Clark read a paper before the Boston Natural-History Society “ On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata, &c.” (Mem. vol. i. pt. 8, reprinted in Annals, Feb. 1868), in which (p. 21, footnote) he conceives that the two spines or ear-like points represent the lines en profile of a‘ membranous cylindrical collar’? which he had observed to exist round the cilium of the monociliated cell in Leucosolenia botryoides, of which most satisfactory delineations are given in his plate 1. figs. 41-44, together with that of several species, fluviatile and marine, of similar aniinals that live independently in groups or singly, sessile and pedicelled, respectively, apart from the sponge altogether. In the latter Prof. James-Clark most sagaciously demonstrates the exist- ence also of this ‘‘ membranous collar ’’—observations which have been further confirmed as satisfactorily by Mr. Kent’s descriptions and delineations of several of the same kind of Infusoria that he found in a pond at Stoke-Newington, in the neighbourhood of London (Monthly Microscop. Journal for Dec. 1871, p. 261, pl. cv.).
Returning, however, to Prof. James-Clark’s “ footnote,” he adds, “ that Carter did not always find these ‘ two spines,’ may be explained by the fact that the membranous collar, as | am inclined to believe the ‘spines’ to be, was retracted, since I have frequently observed this to happen in the case of Leuco- solenia when it was disturbed.”
That is as much as to say that the “ collar” is polymorphic ; and herein is the explanation of what I have above quoted from my paper of 1859, viz. that “I then thought the spines might be accidental prolongations of the sarcode,’”’— a fact which is still further confirmed by my paper of 1871 (Annals, vol. vii. pl. 2. figs. 17 & 18), wherein it is not only stated that every part of the sponge-animal is polymorphic, but the “collar” itself in the figures mentioned may be observed to be transformed into two pseudopodial tentaculiform processes for seizing particles of food, like those of an Actinophrys or of an Acineta.
Hence the “ collar ”’
may be cup-like around the base of the
Mr. H. J. Carter on the Spongozoon. 47
cilium, transformed into pseudopodial prolongations, or, as Prof. James-Clark has stated, ‘ retracted’ altogether.
In 1871 (Annals, . c. pl. 1. ‘flow. 15, 16, &c.) [not only con- firmed Prof. James-Clark’s observations respecting the exist- ence of the “collar,” but found that in the spongozoon of Grantia compressa it was supported on a neck-like projection, to which I gave the name of ‘rostrum.’ Moreover it was also proved, “by the use of indigo-solution, that the spongozoa of this sponge took in crude particles of this substance, while similar monociliated bodies similarly grouped were also ob- served in the marine siliceous sponges; to which I can add one of the horny species par excellence, viz. an Aplysina (Nardo & Schmidt), now belonging to the British Museum, but which Mr. Kent lately found while dredging for sponges on board the yacht ‘ Norna,’ in Vigo Bay.
Thus having found spongozoa in all the three divisions of the Spongiade, viz. in the Keratospongiz, the Siliceospongie, and the Calcispongiz, similar in form and similarly grouped, we may reasonably infer that the spongozoon exists as such, perhaps more or less modified, throughout the whole of the Spongiade, and therefore is the animal which constructs the sponges generally
In Siliman’s Journal for Dec. 1871 (reprinted in Annals, vol. ix. p. 71, pl. 11) Prof. James-Clark confirms, so far as his observations go, the principal points of my description and figures of the “‘ Ultimate Structure of Spongilla,” given in the ‘Annals’ of 1857 (7. c.), to which I have alluded in the first part of this communication.
But at p. 76 (Annals, /. c.), where Prof. James-Clark states that the groups of “ monad cephalids”’ (our spongozoa) are “not cells; they are the heads of a polycephalic individual, and consequently correspond functionally to the tentaculated heads of polypi,” I cannot agree with him, inasmuch as they appear to me to be much more analogous to the groups of Ascidians in the gelatinous structure of a Compound Tuni- cated animal, where the little colony is divided up into groups, furnished respectively with a common cloacal orifice (Annals, vol. vin. pl. 2. fig.41). Here I might add that some of Schmidt’s Halisarcine are so like the Compound Tunicata, that his HZ. guttula appears to me to be one of the latter, and no sponge at all. I speak, of course, from the actual exami- nation of his specimen in spirit at the British Museum in connexion with his published description.
Further, Prof. James-Clark does not admit the existence of a distinct cell round the groups of spongozoa, as I originally described and figured them as a whole under the name of
48 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Spongozoon.
‘‘ ampullaceous sac” (Annals, 1857, 7. c.), but that the groups are situated in excavations of what I termed, in 1849, the “intercellular substance ” (that is, in “‘ mere cavities,” having “no lining wall,” Annals, 1872, /.c. p. 76), but opening into the chamber which I have delineated between the “ investing membrane” and the “ parenchyma” (fig. 1, 1857, /. c.), Pro- fessor James-Clark’s “ cytoblastemic mass.’
All that I can state in reply to this is, that I have figured faithfully (7. c.) what appeared to me to be the rim of a circular opening in material belonging to the spherical group of spon- gozoa. Furthermore, in my journal, under date “ 26th March 1857,” stands a figure of one of these spherical groups of spongozoa which I well remember to have observed in the watch-glass by dtse/f, with the cilia still vibrating in its interior and the aperture closed, after that state had arrived when, as I have described (p. 29, /. c.), the whole of the soft parts of the young Spongilla, apparently from starvation, leave the spicular structure and become dispersed about the watch-glass.
That I did not figure this cell I also well remember to have arisen from diffidence on account of the great number of new and startling facts that were then revealed to me.
Of this being fact, [now have no longer any doubt; and thus we had an “ampullaceous sac” entirely isolated from the parenchyma (“cytoblastemic mass,” Prof. James-Clark) of the sponge, that is, by itself in the watch-glass.
With no aperture, it is true; but then we know that this can be closed or opened as required: yet it still retained the globular form; and hence the question then comes, whether this globular form was retained by an intercellular substance or sarcode uniting the spongozoa together, or whether this union arose from an amalgamation of the polymorphic sarcode of which their bodies are respectively composed. I incline to the former; and this is what I should designate as the ‘ am- pullaceous sac.”
But here we arrive at a point which is most perplexing, if it be not almost entirely beyond our powers to decide,—viz. that state in which the living material assumes forms so deli- cate and so fugitive that we are inclined to deny to them characters even in a remote degree of that solidity and per- manence which by comparative coarseness becomes so evident to our senses in the more advanced developments of ordinary tissues.
In short, are we to deny the existence of a cell of inter- cellular substance binding the whole of the spongozoa into a spherical community, or not? And if so, where is the proof
Mr. H. J. Carter on the Spongozoon. | 49
that this spherical form is maintained by the spongozoa uniting together without the intervention of this substance ?
This brings me to another point which I wish particularly here to clear up.
In Prof. James-Clark’s footnote (Annals, Jan. 1872, p.76) it is stated that ‘he [Carter] has since (viz. in the Annals of 1859, i. c.) revoked that view and adopted another. We believe him to be, excepting the inferred ‘ampullaceous sac,’ in the main right in his first interpretation ’”—that is, of 1857.
Had Prof. James-Clark chanced to have looked on to my “Notes and Corrections” (Annals, 1861, vol. viii. p. 290), two years afterwards, he would there have seen that which he himself has stated, viz. that I myself then felt right in my interpretations of 1857.
Time and subsequent observation have explained how all this revoking occurred. The whole has arisen from the poly- morphic ever-changing nature of the soft parts of the sponge. What I saw at first was changed upon my second observa- tions ; and I saw in the third set again what I had proclaimed in the first and denied in the second. In the higher develop- ments there is no dispute as to the nature of structures, because they are permanent and evident; but in the ever-changing sarcode phenomena are exhibited which certainly, in our pre- sent state of knowledge, are inexplicable; and the very dif- ference of opinion respecting them to which I have above alluded proves at once that we have as yet no certain data: to go upon for any assertions respecting them. What is a mass of sarcode at one moment may be at another in the form of a membrane so delicate as almost to be inappreciable by our senses, and at a third reappear in the form of pseudopodial prolongations. Nay, in dthalium the sarcode may be seen to divide into separate portions and reunite into one mass, apparently as intimately as drops of water.
Finally, I have to describe Spongozoon.
It may be defined to be a spherical polymorphic body or cell, bearing on one part of its circumference an oblong cylin- drical neck-like process, called the rostrum, which supports a delicate cup-like collar, from the centre of which proceeds a long cilium. Internally it contains granular plasma, in which are imbedded a nucleus and one or more contracting vesicles. It possesses the power of taking in crude material for food, and exists in spherical or globular communities imbedded in countless numbers in the sarcodal lining of the areolar cavities of the sponge. Each of these spherical communities is pro- vided with a circular contractile opening on the surtace, through which the particles of food enter, to be further taken
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. x. 4
50 On Parasitic Polypes and Thread-cells in Sponges.
in by the monociliated bodies which, in juxtaposition, line the interior and, projecting their cilia inwards, keep up a rapid undulating vibration towards the centre of this hollow sphere. The undigested parts of their food may be seen to pass into the excretory canals, and, through them, to be finally ejected at the vents on the surface; but whether it passes through their bodies after the manner of Ameba, or has a distinct channel appropriated for this purpose, has yet to be determined.
Parasitic Polypes and Thread-cells in the Parenchyma of a Sponge.
In a specimen, about two inches long, of a thick digito- lobulate branched Reniera, tubulate, opening by a large vent at the end of each lobe, and having one form of spicule only, viz. thin, curved, acerate, said to be of a “pale red colour when alive,” and found in “ Bon Bay,” in “ 25-65 faths.,” just sent to me by Prof. Wyville Thomson, I have found the parenchyma interiorly to be charged with thread-cells of an ovoid form, almost elliptical, and averaging 3-6000ths of an inch long by 2-6000ths of an inch broad—in short, very similar to, if not exactly like, that delineated by Dr. T. Eimer (Schultze’s Archiv fiir mikroscop. Anatom. vol. i. pt. 2, fig. 1, A, p. 283).
Not having found these cells in the dermal part of this sponge, nor in the surface-layer of the great tubular vents, analogous to their position in the polypes &c., but, on the contrary, in the interior of the parenchymatous structure of the sponge, I began to think that they could not belong to it; so I placed a portion in water and examined it with one-inch focus, when they were observed to come from minute delicate polypes, seated in dilated cavities, apparently of the excretory canals, the disk or head of each polype averaging 100th of an inch in diameter, and supported on a short neck, which ended in a little saccular prolongation that was sunk into the paren- chyma or sarcode of the sponge, and charged, in its walls as welf as tentacles, with thread-cells so numerous that they appeared to exceed in bulk the rest of the polype, as may be seen by picking out one on the point of a needle, and putting it under a higher power.
This is the first instance, I think, in which a parasitic polype has been discovered in the znterior of the substance of a sponge; and when it is remembered that a microscopic power with delicate manipulation under water is required for their detection, it may perhaps be assumed that this is how these polypes escaped Dr. Kimer’s notice, and may also explain
Dr. H. Burmeister on hi's so-called Globiocephalus Grayi. 51
how he found thread-cells in Rentera fibulata and Desmacella vagabunda, seemg that many thousands of microscopical ex- aminations of the Spongiade have been made by different naturalists up to this time without their observation.
The Renierinz are especially subject to surface polype parasites, and none more so, perhaps, than Reniera fibulata, Sdt., all over the world. (This species 1s characterized by two forms of spicules, viz. (1) acerate, curved, smooth, large, and (2) C- & S-shaped, minute.) But I have never before found a parasitic polype in the interior of a Hendera or any other sponge, and never any thread-cells where there were no parasitic polypes to originate them. Nor should I have been able to detect them now but for the process mentioned.
There is also another jar sent me by Prof. W. Thomson, in which there is a portion of the same sponge with three other small fragments of as many species undescribed; but this is labelled “‘ Adventure Bank, 92 faths.”
“Bon Bay” is on the African coast, opposite Cape Sparti- vento (Sardinia); and “‘ Adventure Bank”? is the shoal between Tunis and Sicily.
Prof. Thomson also adds the following interesting informa- tion respecting thread-cells, in a note just received :-—
“'Thread-cells are abundant in every thing which feeds upon Ceelenterates of any kind, young or mature, whether feeding by cilia or by the mouth. I have found the thread-cells of several Hydroids apparently living in the skin of a Synapta; and you can always find plenty of them in Amphidetus. Of course, if you find a parasitic polype in the sponge, there is no further difficulty ; but that does not seem necessary. Thread- cells appear to be able to live, for a time at least, an indepen- dent life in foreign quarters.”
June 17, 1872.
=
V.—On my so-called Globiocephalus Grayi. By Dr. HerMANN BuRMEISTER.
Iv the new ‘ Journal de Zoologie,’ the editor, Prof. Paul Ger- vais, of Paris, has noticed (tome i. p. 68) the descriptions of Cetacea published by myself in the ‘ Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires,’ tome 1. p. 367 et seqqg., and has hinted, with good reason, that the animal described there as Globiocephalus Gray? is not a Globiocephalus, but a Pseudorca, nearly allied to, if not identical with, Ps. crassidens of Prof. Reinhardt (Overs. Kong]. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl. 1862, p. 103 et seqq.), comparing my figures given on pl. 21 of es ‘Anales’ | 4
52 Dr. H. Burmeister on his so-called Globiocephalus Grayi. with those of the ‘ Ostéogr. d. Cétacés,’ pl. 50, published by
himself two years ago.
As the sixth part of my ‘Anales,’ wherein is to be found the description of Globiocephalus Grayt, was published in the year 1869*, I could not compare the excellent figures of the ‘Ostéo- graphie’ during the elaboration of my treatise, because the part of M. Gervais’s work alluded to did not reach Buenos Ayres until Sept. 1870. Ihadat hand no other scientific works than Cuvier’s ‘ Ossemens Fossiles’ and Gray’s ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales,’ as I have already said in the ‘ Anales,’ p. 369. Even Prof. Reinhardt’s extended description was not known to me until after the printing of my ‘ Anales.’ Occupied with the elaboration of the following parts, I could not find time to compare my previous labours with the new publi- cations; and although, in Sept. 1870, I had seen the cited figures of M. Gervais, and recognized my error, I could not at once undertake the careful comparison of them with my own, as I was so much engaged with other labours which it was necessary, for various reasons, to complete. But now the criticism of M. Gervais has obliged me to do what I have hitherto neglected, to compare the cranium of G'lobiocephalus Grayt in our museum with the figures of his work, and to publish the results of this comparison.
From my new examination there can be no doubt that my Globiocephalus is a true Pseudorca; but I am also convinced that the species from Buenos Ayres is not identical with Ps, crasstdens, but anew one, more nearly allied to Ps. meridionalis, Flower (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864), than to the species of the Euro- pean seas. My opinion is founded on the following reasons :—
1. The whole skull is narrower before than that of Ps. crassidens, and resembles more in the general figure that of Ps. meridionalis, with the exception of the tip of the muzzle, which is somewhat broader in my skull, and more nearly allied in its form to that of Ps. crassidens.
2. The right intermaxillary bone is much longer posteriorly than the left, surrounding there the outside of the nasal bone, nearly in the same manner as in Gervais’s fig. 1. pl. 50. This character is not well indicated in my fig. 3. pl. 21, because the tip of the ght intermaxillary bone of my skull has been broken off, which I had not noticed before I saw the figures in the ‘ Ostéographie.’
3. The two small faces of the maxillary bones, immediately before the nostrils, are of the same unequal size as in Ps. me- ridionalis, the right bemg larger and broader than the left. In Ps, crassidens both are smaller and of nearly equal size.
* The copies of this part of my ‘ Anales’ were sent from here to London Oct. 25, 1869, and to Paris Noy, 12, 1869, by the post-steamers.
Dr. H. Burmeister on his so-called Globiocephalus Grayi. 53
4, The nasal bones are of very different form, without the high knob behind, but each with a deep diagonal furrow, which divides them into two faces.
5. The tip of the united parietal bones, with a prolon- gation going in between the frontals, is not poimted as in Ps. crassidens, but broad and truncate as in Ps. mertdionalis.
6. Both the upper and the under jaw have the same num- ber of nine teeth, of which the first in the upper jaw is much smaller than the others, but the last of equal size with the preceding ones. This character does not agree with the other species ; both have one tooth more in the under jaw than in the upper jaw. Ps. crassidens has eight teeth above and nine below, and Ps. meridionalis nine above and ten below, the first of the upper jaw of this species being also much smaller than the following ones.
This difference seems to me to be of great importance, and alone sufficient to prove the distinctness of my species.
7. The vomer is visible between the upper maxillary bones in my skull, but not visible in Ps. meridionalis.
8. At least the form of the teeth is entirely different from that in both the previously known species; neither of them has the teeth so thick, short, and worn as my species from the Patagonian coast.
For all these reasons I believe I am quite justified in sepa- rating this animal as a distinct and new species from Ps. cras- sidens and Ps. meridionalis, naming it now
Pseudorca Grayt.
As [ have given a comparative description of the skull in the ‘ Anales,’ and also added the measurements (p. 373) on the metrical scale, I will not here repeat the same, but add only the principal measurements of the skulls of the three species in English inches, in the same manner as they are given by Gray in his ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales,’ pp. 290 & 294.
Ps. meridionalis.
Pseudorca Ps. crassidens.| | sté«dS:«CG@ ray. Adult. Young.
Bmtmedlene ths Ac sas cs Sky 2 23-24 237 | 204,| 26 Dhengthvol mosey. sia: oka ls s- WAS ey LS 93 | .12 Length of teeth-line ........ 10 94 S21 ete Length of lower jaw ........ 21 19 164 | 21 Breadthgat Motch 1. xe wise « 84 ie 64 9 Breadth at middle of beak.... 8 53 on 8 Breadth of intermaxillaries .. 54 44 33 oF
54 Dr. J. E. Gray on Emys nigra from. Upper California.
These measurements prove that the cranial part of the skull is relatively somewhat larger in Ps. Grayt than in Ps, crassi- dens, and that the whole animal may have been consequently stronger and stouter than the European species, exceeding the Australian one still more in both qualities.
The description and figures of the swimming Delphinide, seen by myself in the Atlantic Ocean and published in my ‘ Anales,’ p. 368, do not belong to the Pseudorca Gray?, as I supposed, but to a true Globiocephalus, which cannot be deter- mined exactly without further observations.
Buenos Ayres, April 24, 1872.
VI.—On Emys nigra from Upper California. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.
mys nigra of Hallowell is said to be the same as Emys marmorata of Baird and Girard, which Agassiz, in his great work on the Natural History of the United States (of which only the general observations and the tortoises have appeared), refers to the genus Actinemys, and figures the young of the species ; and on his authority (for I have never been able to see the species) I have arranged it under Ceoclemmys (see Cat. Shield Reptiles, Suppl. p: 27).
In Hallowell’s Report on the Reptiles colleeted in the Survey for the Railroad from the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean, 1859 (a work which I had not previously consulted), he describes and figures Emys nigra, which he says is very abundant in Posa Creek, northern part of Upper California. The figure represents a very depressed water-Hmys, with a dark narrow band across the eye, broad webbed feet, with acute elongated claws. The head appears to be covered with a uniform skin, not divided into symmetrical plates. The limbs and tail are marked with large black spots; and the upper part of the head and neck is blackish, with numerous small yellow spots.
The skin of the head and limbs more resembles that of the true Terrapins than any other American species I know; and it would be very interesting to know the form of the jaws. It certainly is a purely aquatic tortoise, and has nothing to do with the more terrestrial tortoises of America forming the genus Geoclemmys or Actinemys.
Mr. Hallowell’s figure is very like a specimen that I ob- tained at Nantes, and which I deseribed and figured as Hmys olivacea in the ‘Catalogue of Shield Reptiles,’ p. 30, t. 12 ¢, and which is named Redamia olivacea in the Supplement to that Catalogue, p. 35.
M. F. Plateau on the Centre of Gravity in Insects. 55 The specimen only differs from Mr. Hallowell’s figure in
being marked with brown lines beneath, and in having more elongate claws ; and I strongly suspect that they are both the same species.
VII.— Experimental Researches upon the Position of the Centre of Gravity in Insects. By Friix PLATEAU*.
TuE study of the conditions of equilibrium of living crea- tures, I need scarcely say, is only possible when we know in each of them the situation of the centre of gravity. Now that the knowledge of the mechanics of the Articulata has made considerable progress, thanks to the employment of processes of investigation borrowed from physics, it seemed to me that it would be really useful to describe an easy method of inves- tigating the centre of gravity of the Articulata, and to give an account of the results which its application to insects has en- abled me to obtain.
Unfortunately I cannot, in a mere summary, give a descrip- tion of the instrument I have employed. A mere short de- scription without a figure is of necessity obscure and of no use at all. I shall only say that this instrument nearly reproduces,,. on a small scale and with some improvements, that which was invented by Borelli to determine the position of the centre of gravity in man. As to the results of my experiments, I must likewise refrain from giving them under the form which they take in my memoir—that is to say, in the shape of a consider- able number of figures brought together in several tables. I shall therefore confine myself to the indication of the general conclusions which I have thought I might deduce from them, supporting these, where necessary, by a few examples.
1. The centre of gravity of insects is situated in the vertical median plane which passes through the longitudinal axis of the body.
2. It occupies a very nearly identical position in insects of the same species and of the same sex in the same attitude.
3. It is rarely that the external form of the body allows us to determine, without experiment, the exact position of the centre of gravity. I shall cite, as an example, the results furnished by the family of the Odonata. All its representa- tives have nearly the same external aspect ; and yet, notwith- standing this quasi-identity of structure, I have found the
* Bibliothéque Universelle: Archives des Sciences Physiques et Na- turelles, tome xliii. 1872, from an abstract communicated by the author.
56 . M. F. Plateau on the Position of
following differences in the relative positions of the centre of gravity :—
Agrion puella 9. First third of the third abdominal seg- ment.
Agrion sanguinea. Posterior margin of the second abdo- minal segment.
Libellula conspurcata 9. Posterior margin of the meta- thorax.
Lnbellula vulgata 2. Furrow between thorax and abdomen.
Cordulia metallica 9. Posterior margin of the metathorax.
Lischna grandis 9. Middle of the second abdominal seg- ment.
4. The centre of gravity does not occupy the same position in the two sexes of the same species; it is sometimes more and sometimes less backward in the females than in the males, and its situation depends upon the relations existing between the various dimensions of the individuals.
It might have been supposed that the centre of gravity was always situated further back in the females, the abdomen of which is generally more voluminous than that of the males. I have observed the opposite condition in the females of Oryctes nasicornis, Libellula vulgata, and Agrion puella.
5. During the metamorphosis of the larva into the perfect insect, the relative centre of gravity approaches the head; the absolute centre of gravity, on the contrary, departs from it*.
This apparent contradiction is easily explained. The tho- rax.of larve is generally very much reduced and the segments of the abdomen numerous. The centre of gravity therefore falls imevitably in an abdominal segment. In the perfect msect the thorax has acquired considerable dimensions, and the number of abdominal segments has diminished. The thorax, thus being more prolonged posteriorly, has advanced, im a manner, to meet the centre of gravity, which remains plainly in the median region of the body; and the abdomen
* In my memoir I have given the name of the relative position of the centre of gravity to its position with relation to some one of the parts of the body (segment, coxa, &c.), and that of the absolute position of the centre of gravity to the number which is obtained by calculating the relation between the distance from the centre of gravity to the posterior cee of the body and the total length of the animal. The quotients 0:50, 0°67, for example, obtained in this manner, signify that the distance from the centre of gravity to the posterior extremity is five tenths or sixty- seven hundredths of the length of the body. They show at once, and independently of the form and extent of the segments, whether the centre of gravity is at the middle of the insect, more approximated t® the head, or nearer to the anal orifice.
the Centre of Gravity in Insects. oT
becoming shortened, the distance from its extremity to the point in question diminishes.
6. In standing, the centre of gravity is placed at the base of the abdomen, or in the posterior part of the thorax, and usually at the middle of the length of the body.
_ 7. In walking, the centre of gravity of an insect is con- stantly displaced around a mean position, but by too small an amount to be capable of measurement.
In fact, if we make experiments by means of Saltatorial Orthoptera (locusts or grasshoppers), we find that the move- ments of their enormous posterior limbs induce changes in the situation of the centre of gravity; but these changes being very slight, we arrive at the conclusion that it would be im- possible to measure them in ordinary insects.
8. We do not detect any displacement of the centre of gravity when an insect passes from the position of repose to that of flight, except in those species in which the wings are decumbent or crossed upon the back in a state of repose. The displacement is horizontal and from behind forward. For example, this displacement is as follows, in the following species :-—
Dytiscus dimidiatus 0°045 of the total length of the body. Hydrophilus piceus 0028 Melolontha vulgaris ¢ 0°053 Notonecta glauca . . . 0°032 Locusta viridissima. . 0°054 Vespa vulgaris . . . . 0°023 + 93 Plusia gamma ... . 0°025 . ” Eristalis tenax . . . . 0°037
”? ?
9. During active flight the centre of gravity oscillates con- tinually around a mean position which answers to the moments when the extremities of the wings are at the point of crossing of the figure-of-8 curve which they describe in the air.
10. In aquatic insects the centre of gravity 1s nearer to the lower than to the upper surface of the body.
11. During natation the movements of the oar-like posterior legs cause oscillations of the centre of gravity around a mean position, which answers to the situation of the natatory feet at the middle of their course. These oscillations of the centre of gravity induce a continual balancing of the body upon a transverse axis passing through the mean centre of gravity, and cause it, consequently, to traverse a slightly undulated path.
58 Dr. J. S. Bowerbank on Mr. Carter's Paper
VIII.— Observations on Mr. Carter's paper “ On two new Sponges from the Antarctic Sea, and on a new Species of Tethya from Shetland ; together with Observations on the Reproduction of Sponges commencing from Zygosis of the Sponge-animal.” By J.S. BowerBAnNK, LL.D., F.R.S.,&e.
Mr. Carter’s frank and straightforward, though not very courteous style of criticism, emboldens me to adopt a like free-and-easy style in making a few observations on the sub- jects of his paper published in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ No. 54, June 1872. Let me ask him, then, why he designates his proposed new genus Rossella, without giving us the slightest idea of its generic characters, as the author himself states, p. 415, “ All that I have to offer re- _specting this sponge is the description of two forms of spi- cules ;”” and these organs are essentially specific characters. If he had described these spicula without going to the extre- mity of founding a new genus and species to account for them, it would, I think, have been quite sufficient for all scientific purposes. ‘The term Rossedla does not seem to be a happy one, and would certainly have been perfectly imcomprehensible without his reference to Ross. In the first place we have already two genera named Lossia, one of birds and one of mol- lusca ; so that a third founded on the same name appears to be rather superfluous; and, as constructed by the author, it is very possible that our French friends would understand the genus, from its name, as having been founded in honour of Rossel, the eminent communist who was summarily disposed of some time since by the military tribunals of Paris.
Tethya antarctica, Carter.
The specific characters of the sponge (upon which its whole history, both actual and imaginary, is based) are given from a single specimen of a gemmule apparently somewhat dis- torted ; but this distortion gives the author an imaginary basal anchoring character, which, however, is quite a new habit among the Tethec in their adult and natural condition. The supposed new species is illustrated in a diagrammatic series of dots and lines, which may afford effective recollections to the author, but will certainly serve any other purpose rather than that of leading future students to the identification of the species, which, I have a strong idea, is, in reality, Tethea simillima, from the South Sea, in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, and registered in the catalogue of “Contents of the Museum,” part i. 1860, p. 128, B. 176, “from Tongatabue ;” and he will see, in the last paragraph,
-
on Sponges from the Antarctic Sea and from Shetland. 59
p- 148, vol. i. of ‘ Monograph of the British Spongiadex,’ that I have stated that that species has the same description of gem- mule as the larger of the two described as belonging to 7. cranium, but that the smaller and more simple ones which accompany the large one in that species are not present in the college specimen of 7. simillima. A difference in the amount of the projection of the spicula beyond the margins of some parts of the object prepared for microscopical observa- tion, as represented by Mr. Carter in his pl. xx. fig. 2, is very likely to be caused by the process of preparation for ex- amination. In the natural condition, as represented in the gemmules of 7. craniwm, in ‘ Mon. Brit. Spongiade,’ pl. xxv. tig. 344, they do not appear beyond the external membrane of the gemmule. ‘These facts are all stated in p. 147 of vol. i. of my work, and might have been readily verified by Mr. Carter from the specimens of 7. cranium in the British Museum, had he taken the trouble to carefully examine them. ‘The fact of their not appearing beyond the surface of the gemmule militates strongly against Mr. Carter’s imaginary base with its anchoring spicula; and neither in the adult state of the specimens of 7. simillima, nor in any other among the ten species with which I am familiar, are there any such an- choring spicula in their natural state.
The author, in the last paragraph of p. 410 of his paper, has evidently fallen imto the error of imagining that the “ ovum or, rather, young Tethya”’ is, in point of structure, the exact representative of the mature sponge, when, in truth, a very considerable difference in structural arrangement exists between them—that is, if we are to take Tethea cranium, the structure of which we do know, as our exainple of the anatomy of the fully developed sponge and the gemmules within it.
Mr. Carter appears to have been somewhat shocked b finding a jar at the British Museum labelled “‘ Shetland. J. S. Bowerbank, 52. 3. 12. 70-73,’ to which is added, in Dr. Bowerbank’s blue ink and handwriting, ‘ Tethya lyncurtum.’” 1 think Mr. Carter will find that I have not labelled the jar Tethya but Tethea, if I have labelled it myself at all. At this distance of time I only recollect that I gave some British Sponges to the British Museum, and that among them were several specimens of Zethea cranium; and whether I mis- labelled the jar myself inadvertently, or the label was cut from the list of species sent, and so stuck on it in error, I really cannot say; the numbers on the label were certainly not put on by me. In this jar Mr. Carter found “ six specimens, two of Zethya cranium and four of another species of Tethya as
60 Dr.J.S. Bowerbank on Mr. Carter’s Paper on Sponges.
yet undescribed ;”’ and the latter specimens he subsequently described as Tethya antarctica. Mr. Carter seems to have been exceedingly fortunate, if he be correct in his conclusions, in find- ing four specimens of a new species, as immediately on reading his observations on them I set myself to carefully examine the remainder of my stock of 7. cranium, more than a hundred specimens, varying in size from a pea to an average-sized orange; and I could not find a single specimen among them that could not be satisfactorily identified as 7. cranium. I therefore feel strongly inclined to believe that Mr. Carter has fallen into the error of making from small, unimportant dif- ferences in the same sorts. of structures, two species out of one; but the dots and lines he has given in illustration of his paper are so vague and unsatisfactory, that they do not at all assist us in unravelling the mystery. The description of the gemmules‘of his 7. zetlandica would apply quite as well to those of J. cranium; and every form of spiculum that he figures as from the former, may be readily found in the latter species. ;
The author, in p. 419, treating of “the small globular and compressed elliptical bodies” or gemmules of Tethea, writes, in the second paragraph, ‘‘ In Dr. Bowerbank’s ‘ British Sponges,’ pl. 25. fig. 343, will be found a monstrous representation of one of these oviform bodies under the designation of ‘ gemmule,’ which is only surpassed by his description (vol. 1. p. 87), where he applies the term ‘sexual’ to them, and conjectures that one may be the ‘female or prolific gemmule;’ but Dr. Bowerbank had never been able to discover any ‘ spermatozoa’ in either! As this is a kind of physiology that I do not un- derstand, let us go back to the term oviform &c.”
If the author of the paper, in place of criticising the represen- tation of the gemmules of 7. cranium in vol. 1. pl. 25. fig. 343, and the description of them in vol. ii. p. 87, of the ‘ Monograph of British Sponges,’ in the flippant manner in which he has indulged, had communicated with me on the subject, I could have informed him that, instead of illustrating the anatomy of the subjects under consideration by dots and lines, the figures alluded to were drawn from the preparation still in my pos- session, by the aid of the microscope and the camera lucida, by one of the most talented and accurate microscopical artists that we have among us, Mr. W. Lens Aldous, and that his representation of the originals is not in the slightest degree exaggerated; on the contrary, the figure of the larger of the two is that of a gemmule rather less complicated in its struc- ture than many of those closely adjoining it, in a slice of the sponge immersed in Canada balsam, about four lines square,
Viscount Walden on a new Species of Timalia, 61
and which contains twenty-one such gemmules as the two represented—fourteen of the small and more simple ones, and seven of the so-called monstrosities; and I shall at any time be happy to show the originals of the figures to Mr. Gaies and to convince him that all that is monstrous in the matter is in his own imagination. Having had ample opportunity of verifying the correctness of the figures under consideration by access to the specimens in the British Museum, and having failed in this part of his researches, it is evident that he has much more to learn of the anatomy of the sponges under con- sideration before he will be master of his subjects. What we want in the investigation of such matters is careful minute observations and faithful figures and records of their structure, and not abstruse hypothetical imaginations illustrated by dia- grams of dots and lines. And | think I may venture to pre- dict that no naturalist will hereafter be able, by Mr. Carter’s descriptions or his illustrations, to recognize either his Tethya antarctica or Tethya zetlandica. I must acknowledge that I have not yet been able to realize Mr. Carter’s idea that a sponge is a compound creature, and that every cilium with its basal cell is a separate or distinct animal. It is a step beyond my comprehension; for if it be so in sponges, why not also in human beings? from one of whom I have seen the cilia living and in motion. The late Professor Liston, of University College, many years ago had a patient in the University Hospital with polypus in his nose; and he invited me to come up one morning, and pro- mised to show me the human cilia in motion on a small piece of the polypus from the nose of the man. I went, and had the satisfaction of seeing them, in rather languid motion, in some of their own fluid, in a cell slightly warmed by having been put into warm water and then placed beneath the micro- scope. The aérating surfaces of a great variety of animals, beside sponges, are abundantly supplied with cilia and ciliated cells; are we to regard all these as compound animals ?
IX.—On a new Species of Timalia from Eastern India. By Artuur Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S., F.R.S.
Timalia Jerdoni, n. sp. Timalia pileata, Horsf. ap. Jerdon, B. of Ind. ii. p. 24, nec Horsf.
A narrow frontal band extending over the eyes, the cheeks, chin, and throat white; forehead and crown deep chestnut ; remainder of upper surface dark olive-grey ; quills and rec-
62 Prof. A. Macalister on the Anatomy of the Derriah.
trices above brown, tinged with olive; rectrices traversed by numerous narrow bands of a darker shade of brown ; upper part of breast white, changing to cinereous lower down ; each feather with a black shaft ; remainder of lower surface fulvous mixed with cinereous olive ; under tail-coverts cinereous olive.
Longitudo Rostr.a nar. Ale. Caude. Tarsi. T. Jerdom.. 0-31 2°36 2°88 0-88. * Khasia Hills.” T. pileata .. 0°50 2-62, 312 1:00. “ Java.”
Described from specimens obtained in the Khasia Hills.
This bird has hitherto been considered identical with the Javan T. pileata, Horsf. A comparison I have recently been enabled to make with authentic Javan examples has convinced me of their specific distinctness. True 7. pileata is a larger bird; in it the bill is much more powerful, its altitude being quite double that of examples from the Khasia Hills; the crown of the head is bright ferruginous, not dark chestnut ; the colour of the upper plumage, wings, and rectrices 1s con- siderably paler; that of the lower is pale tawny ; and the ashy colour of the black-shafted breast-plumes is less intense. My deeply lamented friend Dr. Jerdon fully concurred with me in the propriety of separating the two species.
In the ‘ Birds of India’ (/.c.) this species is said to extend through the Malayan peninsula to Java; but I believe that it has never been found further south than Arakan. Neither it nor the Javan species has been shown to occur in the Malayan peninsula or in Sumatra. It seems to belong to that category of Javan forms (such as Harpactes oreskios, Crypsirrhina varians, Bhringa remifer, &c.) which, while absent from the intermediate regions of Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, reappear further to the north in Burma, some pene- trating as far as Nipaul.
X.—Notes on the Anatomy of the Derriah (Cynocephalus hamadryas). By ALEexaNDER MAcALisTer, M.B., Pro- fessor of Zoology, University of Dublin.
THE Dublin Zoological Gardens received from Viscount Southwell two fine specimens of this curious animal, a male and a female, both full-grown and in excellent condition. After a residence of some months, the male sickened and died suddenly, and was dissected carefully by Professor Haughton and myself.
Prof. A. Macalister on the Anatomy of the Derriah. 63
The most important points of the muscular anatomy of this animal are as follows :—
The trapezius was indivisible, and was inserted into the outer half of the clavicle. ‘The sterno- and cleidomastoids were inseparable and large, being nearly an ounce in weight. The omohyoid was a single-bellied muscle, with no tendinous intersection. ‘The trachelo-acromial was large, half the size of the sterno-cleidomastoid. ‘The latissimus dorsi arises from the eleven spines below the fifth dorsal, and from the posterior fifth of the iliac crest, but from no ribs. The rhomboid is indivisible, but consists of the usual occipital and dorsal por- tions. The serratus magnus is in three parts, and extends from the second cervical transverse process to the tenth rib; the uppermost and lowest of these are strong, the middle weaker.
Serratus posticus superior is attached to the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, the inferior to the ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth ribs. The pectoralis minor arises from the cartilages of the second to the seventh ribs, and from the abdominal aponeurosis. ‘The deltoid is easily divisible into scapular, acromial, and clavicular parts; of these the acromial is the largest, the clavicular about half its size, and the sca- pular still smaller. The subclavius does not extend beyond the clavicle. The capsular muscles of the shoulder are as usual, and in the following proportions of relative develop- ment :—supraspinatus = 1, infraspinatus = 1°34, subscapu- laris = 1-6, teres major 0°6, teres minor = 0°17. There is a pectoralis quartus from the cartilages of the lowest ribs, in- serted under the pectoralis major and below the pectoralis minor into the shoulder-capsule. -The coraco-brachialis is double—a short muscle (c. brevis of Wood) weighing 0:07 of an ounce, and a longer, going to the lower third of the humerus, weighing 0°14. The two heads of the biceps humeri were inseparably united ; and the entire muscle was nearly 2 ounces in weight: this muscle was 2°3 times as heavy as the bra- chialis anticus; and the triceps (which is divisible into long, outer, and inner parts) is exactly double the sum of these two flexors. The coracoid head of the biceps was fleshy. The dorsi epitrochlearis was thin, extending halfway down the arm, and half an ounce in weight.
There are two anconei, an outer and an inner.
Among the forearm muscles the peculiarities were :—The palmaris longus fleshy for the upper half of the forearm, and half the size of the flexor carpi radialis. The flexor sublimis has no radial origin. The flexor digitorum profundus and pollicis are inseparably connected, and there is a condyloid head separated from the rest by the median nerve. The polli-
64 Prof. A. Macalister on the Anatomy of the Derriah.
ceal tendon of this muscle arises from that part of the flexor mass which springs from the inner side of the olecranon.
Pronator quadratus is bilaminar, the upper layer being tri- angular, with the base at the ulna; the deeper layer is also a triangle with a radial base: the entire muscle occupies one fourth of the ulna and one sixth of the radius.
There is a large supinator longus, exactly equal to the pro- nator teres (0°4 of an ounce). The extensor minimi digiti supplies the fourth and fifth fingers. The indicator supplies the second and third digits; and there is no abductor minor pollicis (extensor primi internodii pollicis).
Palmaris brevis is very thick, and attached to the pisiform bone. The abductor pollicis brevis is divided into two—a weak external slip arising from the metacarpal bone, and an internal stronger one from the trapezium. ‘The flexor brevis pollicis is also divided into two parts, both of which arise from the annular ligament. A distinct opponens pollicis stretches from the trapezium to the polliceal metacarpal; and there is an adductor from the middle metacarpal. The little finger has three muscles—an abductor, an opponens, and a flexor. The hand-interossei are as in man, as are the lumbricales. The abductor pollicis major is mainly inserted into the trape- zium, with a few fibres into the metacarpal.
The psoas parvus is one seventh part of the psoas magnus, which latter 1s inseparable from the iliacus. ‘The adductors are three, as usual; and the pectineus is very small. The gluteus maximus, agitator caude, and tensor vagine femoris are inseparable, as also are the pyriformis and gluteus medius.
The biceps femoris is ischiatic, and has only one head. The semitendinosus is one third the size of the biceps, and the semimembranosus is one fourth. The extensors of the knee are to the flexors as 11°6 : 16°09.
Plantaris is very large, and attached as usual. The flexor digitorum muscle mainly supplies the second and fifth toes, while the flexor hallucis supplies the first, third, and fourth toes. The tibialis anticus has a double tendon, and is attached to the internal cuneiform and metatarsal bone of the hallux.
The peroneus longus has a sesamoid bone in its tendon. The peronzus brevis has a thread-like oftshooting tendon, re- presenting the peroneus quinti. There is a large pyriform abductor minimi digiti. The flexor brevis digitorum has no tendon to the fifth toe ; nor is there a lumbricalis for the second toe; the others are all bicipital.
From the tendon of the flexor hallucis at the ankle there arose a fleshy belly, which soon became tendinous; and this formed a head for the first lumbricalis, which was thus made into a digastric muscle.
Prof. A. Macalister on the Anatomy of the Derriah. 65
The foot-interossei are as follows :—three plantar, an ad- ductor hallucis, an adductor indicis, and adductor quinti digiti. The dorsals’ are :—abductor indicis with only one head from the second metatarsal bone, an abductor medii digiti with two heads, an adductor medii digiti, an abductor annularis.
The masseter is very large; and so is the temporal; the entire muscular mass for the closure of the jaws is over twelve ounces in weight—that is, equal to the entire quadriceps ex- tensor cruris.
This animal is a native of Abyssinia, and, under the name of Hepi and Thoth, figured largely in the Egyptian mytho- logy; but this part of its history has been very thoroughly elucidated by Ehrenberg in his paper “ Ueber den Cynocephalus der Aegyptier, nebst emigen Betrachtungen tiber die iigyp- tische Mythe der Thot und Sphinx vom naturhistorische Standpunkt,” in the ‘ Abhandlungen’ of the Berlin Academy for 1833 (Physikal. Klasse, p. 337). Mr. Ogilby, however, has combated this opinion, and supposes that another species, which he names Cynocephalus Thoth, is the sacred animal of Hermapolis (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 10). However, it is unquestionable that the figures of the animal in Lepsius, Rossellini, and on Canopi and Scarabei, &e., in the Dublin University Museum, are exceedingly good representations of the Hamadryad.
The literature of the anatomy of Cynocephali and their allies is not extensive : the best papers on the subject are those by Pagenstecher (Drill, ‘ Zoologischer Garten,’ 1867, p. 128), and Champneys (Anubis, ‘ Journal of Anat.’ 1871, p. 176). In comparing the latter paper with my description, the following points may be noticed in which the Anubis and Hamadryad are dissimilar :—The trachelo-acromial is attached to the occi- put in the Anubis, while it is not in the Hamadryad; the lesser pectoral was not separate in the Anubis, and the insertion of its representative was along the bicipital groove, not into the semivagina of the shoulder-joint; the rhomboids were separa- ble in the Anubis, not in the Hamadryad; the arrangement of the serratus magnus, described by Champneys in the Anubis, was very dissimilar to what is described above; the extensor carpi ulnaris had an origin from the ulna in the Hamadryad, but not in the Anubis; the abductor pollicis major had a sesamoid cartilage in the Anubis (/. ¢. p. 184), no such thing existed in the Hamadryad ; the iliacus is simple in the Hamadryad, not in the Anubis; plantaris was perfectly separate in the Hama- dryad, but not so in the Anubis; Champneys’s peroneus tertii m the Anubis is really, as he suggests, a quinti, as also is the so-called tertii of Church.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vel. x. 5
66
MISCELLANEOUS.
On some Dermal Tubercles associated with Fossil Fish-remains. To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.
GrntLEMEN,—In the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for April, pp. 260 & 261, there is an interesting communication by Messrs. Hancock and Atthey, in which they describe the discovery of certain teeth-like bodies found associated with Cladodus mirabilis and Gyracanthus tuberculatus.
They refer to a paper of mine, published in the ‘ Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow,’ vol. iv. pt. 1. pp. 57-59, and state that I seem to confound Diplodus with those teeth-like bodies or dermal tubercles, and to consider the remains of the semicartila- ginous skeleton to be shagreen,—and also state that it is to Prof, Williamson that we owe the discovery of the true nature of this peculiar substance, who clearly proves it to be the remains of what he terms the chondriform bone or semicartilaginous skeleton.
While I do not wish to call in question their deductions regarding their own discoveries, or the identifications of Prof. Williamson, I beg, however, to be allowed to express my surprise at those gentle- men supposing that I had confounded Diplodus with the dermal tubercles referred to.
In my paper I refer to the discovery of a slab of ironstone covered with shagreen, and two spines of Otenacanthus hybodoides imbedded in that substance. Associated with these spines are a number of the teeth of Cladodus mirabilis, all evidently in their proper relative position. I had removed a portion of the ironstone overlying the snout, and exposed the skin thickly studded over with numerous teeth-like bodies, consisting of two, three, and four curved diverging points rising from an expanded base, and with a sharp keel on the curved side passing to the apex of each of the points.
Further on I state that I discovered on another slab of ironstone the teeth of Diplodus gibbosus associated with another form of those dermal teeth-like bodies; but these are smooth, enamelled, circular in section, and relatively larger, and more sharply pointed than those with the keel along the curved face. Thus having found the first form associated with the teeth of Cladodus mirabilis and the latter with the teeth of Diplodus gibbosus, and having frequently verified this discovery, the conclusion was irresistible, viz. that they each represented the dermal development of different fish ; and as in the recent rays (that is, in the living forms) sexual dif- ferences are to be noted in the dermal development, I suggested the probability of the difference exhibited in the fossils being due to a similar cause. This suggestion is thrown out without the slightest desire to dogmatize, well knowing that there have been far too many forms named from being simply found associated with other parts. The evidence, however, is much in favour of the suggestion. The different forms are not only associated with, but are imbedded in, the shagreen of the fish.
Miscellaneous. 67
From numerous microscopic sections, both of the semicartilaginous skeleton and that of the skin, there is not the slightest doubt re- garding the bone of the skeleton and the shagreen of the skin. In sections of the latter I have exposed the dermal tubercles resting upon and attached to the skin. | JamEs Tomson. 276 Eglinton Street, Glasgow.
May 27.
On the two (?) unknown Species of Argus Pheasant. To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.
GENTLEMEN,—Permit me to make a few remarks on the feathers of the two (?) unknown species of Argus Pheasant.
The largest feather, as figured in Mr. Elliot’s ‘ Monograph of the Phasianide,’ part 5, is undoubtedly a relic of a bird which, when found, will probably prove to be generically distinct from Argus, so different is it in form from any feather of the known species of that genus. Of the other two feathers, which Mr. Elliot supposes to be primaries of the same bird, I have a very different opinion, believing them to be feathers of the true tail (as distinguished from the orna- mental tail-coverts) of the Javan Peacock, Pavo muticus. I sus- pected this on first looking at the plate; and on examining the tail- feathers of that bird in the British Museum this opinion was con- firmed, the form, colour, and markings being identical. I also found by comparison that the drawings of these feathers are of exactly the same dimensions as the real ones of P. muticus; whereas Mr. Elliot states them to be represented only half the natural size. This is probably a mistake ; but if not, the bird to which they belonged must have been, in all probability, a very large variety or species of the genus Pavo.
I also wish to state that the feather which I described as belonging to an unknown bird related to Argus also presents certain peculi- arities which seem to indicate that the bird to which it belongs is generically distinct ; and I regret that Mr. Elliot, in quoting from the ‘Annals,’ omitted the note of interrogation which I placed after the word Argus, as I think he will agree with me that the generic posi- tions of these birds can only be approximately determined from their feathers.
I remain, Gentlemen, Yours very truly, London, June 15th, 1872. T. W. Woop.
Note on a Deformed Example of Cariama cristata. By Dr. A. GintHer.
There is in the British Museum a stuffed example of a Cariama which differs from C. cristata in so striking a manner, by the short- ness of its neck and legs, that it might be easily taken for a distinct species. However, on a closer examination, I have convinced myself
~ Se ve
oO
68 Miscellaneous.
that it is merely a deformed example of the common Brazilian species.
* 1. The specimen, although fully adult, is not very old, having still reddish-brown cross bars on the outer web of the inner primaries. The state of its wing- and tail-feathers shows clearly that it has been kept in captivity. ;
2. The head, body, and toes are of the same dimensions as in normally developed individuals; but the tarsus, which in an old bird measures normally 7} inches*, is reduced in our specimen to 53 inches, the number of anterior transverse scutes being the same in both (26 or 27). The bone is slightly bent inwards, thus showing unmistakable signs of being malformed by rhachitic disease. Also the tibia appears to be somewhat shortened,
3. The shortness of the neck can be accounted for by the manipu- lation of the stuffer ; but I must remark that in the skeleton of an- other specimen likewise kept in captivity, the eleventh and twelfth - cervical vertebre are affected by rhachitis; so that in our stuffed example the shortness of the neck may have been really caused by an abnormal curvature of the cervical portion of the vertebral column. In the skeleton mentioned the upper end of the right tibia and the first phalanx of the outer toe of the same side are much swollen in consequence of osteoporosis.
4. In the plumage not the slightest difference can be observed between this and other specimens of C. cristata of the same age.
Tt will be seen from these remarks that the Gariama, which is easily domesticated and frequently kept in captivity, is, in this state, subject to diseases of the bones, and that bodies of tame birds should not be chosen for osteological preparations.
On the Natural Affinities of the Balistide. By M. C. Darzsre.
Ina memoir published in 1851 I showed that the Cuvierian order Plectognathi contains a certain number of very dissimilar forms united by a very imperfect character—that it must, consequently, be struck out of our classification, as M. Vogt had previously indicated, but without giving any demonstration—and that the diverse types united under this denomination must be referred to other groups of osseous fishes. Resuming these investigations, I propose to show that one of the groups of the order Plectognathi, that of the Balistes, must take its place among the Acanthopterygians, in the vicinity of the Acanthuri and other fishes belonging to the small family of the Teuthyes.
The family of the Teuthyes, as established by Cuvier, presents, in the small number of genera which he combined under this denomi- nation, two very different types of organization. The Sidjans or Amphacanthi, which Cuvier placed at the head of this family, differ so much from the other genera that M. Agassiz and subsequently
* 84-8§ inches (Rhenish meas.), according to Burmeister.
Miscellaneous. 69
Dr. Giinther have thought it necessary to separate them. This elimination having been made, the Acanthuri and the four or five allied genera which remain in the family Teuthyes have the closest affinities with the Balistes, as I shall now endeavour to prove.
In vertebrate animals it is the skeleton that furnishes the most correct indications as to the affinities and consequently the true characters of the natural groups. The uncertainty in which we still are with regard to the establishment of these groups among fishes will only be dissipated by the determination of their osteo- logical types. The elements of such a work are still too completely wanting to allow of our attacking it as a whole ; but we may prepare the way for it by partial investigations. Thus I now propose to demonstrate the very great analogy and the common characters of the skeletons of the Acanthuri and Balistide, especially the true Balistes, which are more neatly allied to the Acanthuri than the Triacanthi, Monacanthi, and Alutere.
In both groups the jaws are very small. The border of the upper jaw is formed solely by the intermaxillaries. The maxillaries, which are but very slightly developed, are firmly and immovyably attached to the intermaxillaries. This character is the more important be- cause it constitutes, according to Cuvier, the character of the order Plectognathi. Now the Acanthuri deserve to be called Plectognathi quite as much as the Balistes. The teeth, in both jaws, have the form of incisors.
The skull is very narrow. Its upper surface is much elongated and formed by two planes which meet at an obtuse angle above the orbit; whence it results that the true cranium descends obliquely behind the orbit to meet the vertebral column, instead of being placed in the same horizontal plane as this bony column. It also fol- lows, from this oblique position of the cranial region, that the mas- toid bone is placed very low. It nevertheless presents, in both groups, a large vertical apophysis in front of its articulation with the bones of the shoulder.
The upper occipital, or interparietal, advances between the prin- cipal frontals, and forms, at the summit of the head, a more or less elevated crest.
The ethmoid is much elongated; and consequently the anterior frontals and the palatines are at a great distance from each other, and do not become united to form bony nasal cavities.
The anterior sphenoid is produced in front of the orbit in the form of a vertical plate, which meets a vertical plate produced by the ethmoid, and forms with it a bony partition which separates the ethmoid from the palatine arch.
The vomer is very small, and destitute of teeth.
The palatines are also small, destitute of teeth, and movably arti- culated with the ethmoid and intermaxillary.
The different pieces of the temporal wing are not all soldered together, and leave empty spaces merely occupied by the membrane of the palate.
The opercular flap is formed only by the operculum and the sub-
70 Miscellaneous.
operculum. ‘The interoperculum is more or less concealed within the preoperculum; at least in its anterior part, or that which is joined to the jaw, and sometimes throughout its whole extent, it presents the form of a rod. The second case is that of the Balistes ; the former that of the Acanthuri, in which it acquires the form of a very narrow plate only in its posterior part.
The hyoid bone is attached to the temporal wing at but little dis- tance from the posterior angle of the lower jaw; it is consequently very small. The lateral branches, which bear the branchiostegal rays, have fewer pieces than in other fishes. The unpaired piece, or tail of the hyoid, is very large, and formed of two long branches uniting at a right angle.
The bones of the shoulder appear, in the part anterior to the pectoral fins, in the form of large plates, produced by at least the partial amalgamation of the three bony pieces which, according to Cuvier’s nomenclature, form the humerus, radius, and cubitus. The coracoid is greatly developed. The pelvis is much elongated, and the two pieces which form it are more or less soldered together.
The vertebral column is formed by a small number of vertebree (about 20 to 22). The dorsal vertebrae bear very long vertical neurapophyses and horizontal hemapophyses starting from the middle of the vertebra and bearing very small ribs. The caudal vertebrae have the neurapophyses and hemapophyses vertical and much elongated.
The differences between the skeletons of the Acanthuri and Balistes are but few and of slight importance.
The Acanthurt have nasal and suborbital bones, which are want- ing in the Balistes; but these bones are very variable in fishes, and can only furnish secondary characters.
The dorsal fin is single in the Acanthuri, whilst in the Balistes the spinous and soft rays are separated to form two fins,
In the Balistes the preeoperculum has its oblique shorter than its horizontal branch ; the reverse is the case in the Acanthuri: con- sequently the branchial fissures and the opercular flaps are larger in the Acanthuri than in the Balistes.
In the Acanthuri the dorsal hemapophyses bear, besides the ribs, some little styles which ascend in the interior of the muscles, as in the Clupeidee.
We see therefore that, with the exception of a few differences, the osteological type of the Acanthuri is the same as that of the Balistes. I regret that I am unable to complete this investigation by the comparison of the other organs, which must undoubtedly present resemblances similar to those of the skeletons. I must add, how- ever, that Valenciennes has already indicated the at least apparent similarity presented by the scaling of a species of Acanthurus (A. scopas) to that of certain Balistide of the genus Monacanthus—a resemblance which had even struck the Dutch of the East Indies, since they confound the Balistide and the Acanthuri under the same denomination, that of Leervisch, or ‘leather-fishes.” — Comptes Rendus, June 17, 1872, pp. 1527-1530,
Miscellaneous. @
On the Synonymy of the Genera of Kuryalide. - By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.
Having occasion to examine ‘and determine the Red-Sea Radiata presented to the British Museum by Mr. M‘Andrew, I had occasion to use MM. Dujardin and Hupé’s work. The following corrections and additions to his synonymy occurred to me. ‘They chiefly arise from the almost universal habit of French zoologists to ignore the works of any other country. In the ‘Synopsis of the British Mu- seum’ for 1840 I gave the characters of the families and genera ; so there is no excuse for their not being quoted.
Euryalide, Gray, Syn. Brit. Mus. 1840, p. 63, = Huryalidies, Du-
jardin & Hupé, 1862, p. 292.
I. Evryatr, Gray, Syn. B. M. 1840, p. 62. Huryale, pars, Link. Trichaster, Agassiz, Dujardin & Hupé, 1862, p. 300,
1. Euryale palmiferus, Lam.
II. Asrropuyton, Gray, Syn. B. M. 1840, p.62; Miller & Troschel, Liitken, Duj. & Hupé, 1862, p. 301. Gorgonocephalus, Leach, Zool. Mise.
1. Astrophyton verrucosum, Lam. &e.
IIL. Lasrarta, Gray, Syn. B. M. 1840, p. 64, with characters. Asterochema, Liitken, Addit. ad Hist. Ophiur, 1859, p. 255; Dujardin & Hupé, Echinod. p. 296.
1. Laspalia oligactes = Asterias oligactes, Pallas. Asterochema oligactes, Litken, l.c.; Dujard. & Hupé, p. 297. Ophiura cirrosa, Say. Trichaster leptocladia, Mus. Paris.
Euryale simplex, Gray, Encycl. Metropol. West Indies and Central America. IV. Natatra, Gray, Syn. B. M. 1840, p. 64. Asteroporpa, Liitken, Addit. ad Hist. Ophiur. 1859, p. 152.
1. Natalia annulata,
Asteroporpa annulata, Liitken, 7. c. p. 159, t. 5. f.4; Dujardin & Hupé, Echinod. p. 298, t. 2. f. 6. Central America.
On a New Species of Paradoxornis. By the Abbé A. Davin,
Father Heude, Missionary at Shanghai, busies himself actively in studying and collecting the natural productions of the province in which he dwells. Among the birds in his collection which he showed me as I passed through that city there are several which do not yet figure in the ornithological catalogues of the Chinese Empire. Of these I observed one which is particularly interesting, belonging to that curious group of Insectivora with a stout and compressed beak, which is represented in Eastern Asia by the genera Conostoma, Cholornis, Paradoxornis, and Suthora.
The bird in question appears to me to be intermediate between the last two genera, and may, perhaps, form a new genus. I place it provisionally in the genus Paradowornis, of which it presents the principal characters.
72 Miscellaneous.
M. Heude having allowed me to take the description of his bird, which is unique in his collection, I hasten to send it to you, and regard it as my duty to dedicate to him this new species, under the name of Paradowxornis Heuder.
Morelelencgh:.) 2cjk\. eae ss Gis hits Ries te 18 centims. eneph at phestalliyy errs. . ws stl etelel ees 92 55 an OF the closedvwint.<. c.045 645 57 millims. BE GOL CHOKUATAB YE Sodbiekoky. Acese abbots ot ee
Bill yellow ; feet of a yellowish grey; claws grey.
Tail long, much graduated, with the feathers black, terminated by a broad white spot; the median feathers unicolorous yellowish TOY.
‘ Wings short and round, with the quill-feathers black, surrounded by a margin of reddish grey ; lesser coverts of a cinnamon fulvous, as well as the feathers of the insertion of the wings.
Stalks of the rectrices and remiges black above, white beneath.
Head grey in the middle ; two broad black streaks above the eyes, like eyebrows; neck grey ; parotic region of a rosy grey ; back rosy grey, with a few elongated brown spots; rump reddish yellow.
Throat white; breast of a vinous rosy colour; flanks reddish ; middle of the belly whitish, as are also the subcaudals.
M. Heude killed this pretty bird in December 1871 among the reeds (Phragmites) which border a lake of the Kiang-Sou; these it traverses in little flocks. According to that naturalist, it possesses an agreeable voice and has the climbing (or rather clinging) habits of the allied genera—Comptes Rendus, June 3, 1872, p. 1449.
Investigations on Fossil Birds. By M. A. Mitye-Epwarps.
At the moment when my investigations upon fossil birds approach their termination, and before the last part is given to the public, I will ask the Academy’s permission to explain in a few words the re- sults at which I have arrived during these studies, which have lasted fully twelve years.
I believe I have demonstrated, by the examination of the bones which have been found in the recent deposits in the Mascarene Islands, and which belong, for the most part, to extinct species, such as the dodo, the solitaire, the Aphanapteryx, Fulica Newtoni, large Parrots, &c., that these islands have once been part of a vast extent of land, that these lands by little and little and by a slow depression have been hidden under the waters of the ocean, only leaving visible some of their highest points, such as the islands of Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon. These islands have served as a refuge for the last representatives of the terrestrial population of these ancient epochs; but the species, confined in too limited a space and exposed to all causes of destruction, have disappeared by degrees; and man has in some measure aided in their extinction.
Madagascar evidently was not in communication with these islands ; for when Europeans visited them for the first time, they did not find
Miscellaneous. Vf)
there any Mammalia, with the exception of some large bats; none of those remarkable Lemurid peculiar to the fauna of Madagascar existed in the Mascarene Islands. The study of fossil birds leads to the same result; and the three species of Apyornis which M. A. Grandidier and I have been able to recognize among the fossils col- lected in the swamps of the south-west coast have enabled us to establish the relationship which connects these birds with the Dv- nornis, the Palapteryx, and Aptornis of New Zealand. All these species belong to the same zoological type, and make us feel that at a more or less remote epoch there may have existed some communi- cation between these lands so far away from one another; perhaps groups of islands, now submerged, formed intermediate stations, of which unfortunately we have now no trace.
In France, from the earliest age of man, we remark sometimes in superficial deposits, sometimes in caverns, fragments of birds which furnish us with valuable indications of the climatal conditions of that epoch. Some of these species have now entirely disappeared ; others, in considerable numbers, have by degrees retired towards the north—for instance, the grouse and the great hawk owl, which then were extremely common in these countries. Their presence is most significant ; for even supposing, according to some naturalists, the reindeer is only found fossil in France because it had been in- troduced by the Finnish population, we cannot invoke the same ex- planation for birds which have never been domesticated. Lastly. we also find in our caves a great number of species identical with those which now inhabit temperate Europe—among others, the cock, which was supposed to be a native of India, but which, on the contrary, must have been a contemporary of the first ages of man.
It is especially the Middle Tertiary deposits which have furnished me with a rich harvest. Thus in the Department of the Allier [have recognized the presence of about 70 species belonging to very various groups, some of which no longer belong to our fauna. Parrots and Trogons inhabited the woods; swallows built in the fissures of the rocks nests in all probability like those now found in certain parts of Asia and the Indian archipelago. A secretary bird nearly allied to that of the Cape of Good Hope sought in the plains the ser- pents and reptiles which at that time, as now, must have furnished its nourishment. Large adjutants, cranes, flamingoes, the Palc- lodi (birds of curious forms, partaking at once of the characters of the flamingoes and ordinary Gralle), and ibises frequented the banks of the watercourses where the larve cf insects and mollusks abounded ; pelicans floated in the midst of the lakes; and, lastly, sand-grouse and numerous gallinaceous birds assisted in giving to this ornithological population a physiognomy with which it is im- possible not to be struck, and which recalls to one’s mind the de- seriptions which Livingstone has given us of certain lakes of southern Africa.
The list I have given of the birds whose existence I have ascer- tained in the part of the Miocene lakes the alluvium of which has formed the deposits of St. Géraud le Puy, of Vaumas, &c., indicates
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. x. 6
74 Miscellaneous.
the relations in which the different groups of this class of vertebrates lived. Whilst some of them are extremely common, there are others which are only found, so to speak, accidentally, and which are only represented in my collection by a single bone or only a few bones. The species most frequently met with are the water-birds: thus the ducks have left numerous remains; the cormorant is only found at certain places. Evidently at that time, as now, birds had prefer- ences for certain places, certain rocks, &c., from which they de- parted but little. The little diver (Colymboides minutus) is less abundant than the gulls, of which two species, Larus elegans and L. totanoides, exist in profusion.
It is the same with some of the small shore-waders belonging to the genera Totanus and T'ringa, whilst Elorius and Himantopus are represented by few individuals. I have found numerous bones of the ibis, and in particular of the Palelodus ambiguus ; the four other species of the latter genus are by no means so common. Thus out of two hundred bones of these birds hardly one will turn out to be of P. crassipes, P. minutus, P. gracilipes, or P. goliath. The por- tions of the skeleton of the flamingo are rarely found entire at St. Géraud le Puy; whereas at Coumon and Chaptuzat, on the contrary, they are well preserved. I have only once met with the bones of the adjutant; they belonged to two young specimens, and were as- sociated in the same excavation filled with sand. The cranes are rare ; their bones are almost always broken and often injured by the teeth of rodents, as if they had lain for a long time on the bank before being carried to the bottom of the lake. The rails, the gallinaceous birds, the pigeons, the sand-grouse, the passerine birds, the raptores, and the parrots have left but few traces of their existence. These birds, from their mode of life, did not remain continually on the shores of the lakes or watercourses ; their remains might be eaten or destroyed at once, and it would need a concurrence of exceptional circumstances for them to be transported by the streams into the alluvial deposits of the lakes: thus I had explored these deposits for more than ten years before I met with a single bone of a parrot, sand-grouse, secretary bird, or of several of the raptores ; and some, of which I had collected the remains a long time ago, have not ap- peared since.
All the bones of birds collected in the Miocene beds of Weissenau, in the basin of Mayence, that I have been able to examine, present a complete resemblance to those of the Department of the Alber.
The ornithological population of the celebrated deposit of Sansan, in the Department of the Gers, presents another character ; not one of its representatives is foundin the lacustrine deposits of the Bour- bonnais and the Auvergne: and although the greater part of the species belong to families at present existing in our fauna, not one is known to be actually living, and several of them present charac- ters sufficient to constitute new genera.
I have discovered there a parrot of a more slender form than that of the Allier, and I have designated it by the name of Pszttacus Lar- tetianus, to attach the name of my regretted master and friend to one
Miscellaneous. "5
of the most interesting species that I have ever found in this rich deposit. Some gallinaceous birds of a large size, and in this respect hardly inferior to the peacocks and true pheasants, also inhabited the shores of the little lake, where the deposits accumulated which now form the hill of Sansan ; numerous passerine birds, resembling the Bengalis and Senegalis, frequented the margins of the waters ; lastly, the number of species was not less than 35, and certainly new excavations will not fail to make known more.
The marine faluns of the Loire have only furnished me with a few species of birds. I have been able, however, to recognize a cormo- rant almost as large as that which now lives on our shores, a goose a little smaller than the bernicle, a heron, and a pheasant.
The beds of gypsum in the environs of Paris contain numerous impressions of skeletons of birds; and it is to be observed that the animals of that period deviated more from the zoological forms which exist at the present day. Thus, despite the unwillingness I feel, especially in paleontological studies, to increase the already too large number of generic groups, I have beenobliged to formnew genera for many among them. Thus the Cryptornis antiquus was nearer the hornbills than any known type; Laurillardia and Palegithalus belong to the order of passerine birds, but were quite distinct from all those now living. The Palwortyges are gallinaceous, of the size of a quail, but very different from those birds. G'ypsornis is the giant of the family Rallide; it must almost have attained the size of a stork. Agnopterus approaches the flamingoes, although it displays some characters peculiar to itself.
The singularity of the forms of these Eocene birds makes us doubly regret not knowing those of the Cretaceous period. Unfor- tunately there exist only a very small number of freshwater depo- sits dating from that period; therefore it is not astonishing that we have as yet discovered only very few traces of terrestrial animals which lived during the deposition of these important strata. Perhaps new zoological forms will be discovered there filling up the immense gap which exists between the Jurassic Archeopteryx and the typical birds of the Tertiary epoch.—Comptes Rendus, April 15, 1872, pp. 1030-1034.
Migrations of the Graptolites. By H. Attnyne Nicuotson, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Professor of Natural History and Botany in University College, Toronto.
The author commenced by stating that the occurrence of the same species of marine animals in deposits in distant areas is now gene- rally regarded as evidence that such deposits are not strictly contem- poraneous, but rather that a migration from one area to another has taken place; this migration he thought would probably in many cases be accompanied by modification. Applying these principles to the Graptolites, he endeavoured to show in what directions their migrations may have taken place.
He excluded from the family Graptolitide the genera Dictyonema, Dendrograpsus, Callograpsus, and Ptilograpsus, and stated that the
76 Miscellaneous.
family as thus limited extended from Upper Cambrian to Upper Silurian times. The earliest known Graptolites were those of the Skiddaw Slates, which he thought would prove to belong to the Upper Cambrian series. The Skiddaw area he considered to extend into Canada, where the Quebec group belongs to it. Genera of Graptolites belonging to this area are represented in Australia; and this the author regarded as indicative of migration, but in which direction was uncertain. Having discussed the forms of Graptolites characteristic of the deposits in the Skiddaw-Quebee area, the author proceeded to indicate the mode in which the family is represented in the areas of deposition of the great Silurian series—namely, the Llandeilo areas of Wales and Scotland, the Coniston area of the North of England, the Gala area of South Scotland, the Hudson- River area of North America, and the Saxon and Bohemian areas— giving under each of these heads a list of species,